Antique jewelry: What jewelry did the emperors of Ancient Rome wear? Mail of ancient Rome What was on the hats of the couriers of ancient Rome

Voronov S.S.

Introduction

Every day, tens of thousands of letters, parcels, and parcels are delivered to people using the postal service. Mail helps people communicate on different parts of the world. In the modern world, in the era of the Internet and high-quality telephone communications, mail is losing its relevance, but still remains the main way of communication between people, and also plays a major role in sending parcels.

The modern idea of ​​mail is a little different from the idea that people had in the past. The Russian word “mail” comes from foreign words, the meaning of which can be roughly translated into Russian as – stop, station (where post horses were changed).

Post is a type of communication and an institution (state in many countries) that transmits information in the form of postal items (written correspondence, periodicals, money orders, parcels, parcels) using vehicles (rail, road, sea, air).

Postal services developed differently among different nations, so different cultures had their own peculiarities of postal communication. But still, some parallels in history can be drawn.

Ancient times

At the beginning of the era of human origin or in primitive times, voice communication served as a tool for transmitting important information. The main disadvantage of such communication was the inability to transmit information over long distances. To transmit signals over long distances in prehistoric times, primitive people began to use drums and fires.

Age of Great Empires

In the era of the Great Empires (or, as they used to call it, the era of antiquity), the main way of transmitting information was messengers and couriers. In a number of states (for example, the Roman Empire), postal services were state-owned and well established. In some countries, when delivering mail over long distances, messengers were sent on horseback. In ancient times, mail was mainly actively used by the leaders of empires or the nobility for rapid communication with remote provinces or for the transmission of quick messages.

Foot messengers in the service of the leadership, as a rule, were slaves and had to cover long distances in the shortest possible periods of time, thereby ensuring the efficiency of decision-making, both in peacetime and in wartime. The people involved in this craft were very well prepared physically.

Large eastern states (Egypt, Persia, China), due to the large extent of their territories and subject possessions, began to use pigeons as mail carriers. The birds were specially trained and raised, after which the concept of “carrier pigeon” arose. One of the main tasks of mail in large empires was the delivery of messages related to military purposes, and there were even separate services.

During excavations of various cities of ancient cultures, archaeologists found manuscripts, writings and other evidence that mail in those days had already begun to acquire the structure that it has in the modern world. Even then, rest stations that served as “post offices” were found. At these stations, the messengers changed horses and rested.

The Roman Empire made the greatest contribution to the development of postal services. Postal service was subordinated to the state, and postal transportation was carried out both by land and by sea. The emperors needed mail to communicate with all the provinces of the Roman Empire and was of great importance.

For the ordinary population in large empires, as a rule, there were no methods of delivering mail, because... mail, in the form in which it was, served for the benefit of emperors and nobility, so postal messages were delivered with the help of friends who traveled to other cities, provinces, and countries on business.

Middle Ages

Europe

The Middle Ages is known as the era of numerous wars, military campaigns, the strengthening of the role of the church, but at the same time as the era of technological progress.

In some European countries, after the fall of the Roman Empire, they tried to recreate the state post office, but all attempts did not lead to a positive result. The nobility carried out postal transportation with the help of their subjects (messengers, couriers, drivers).

Because The role of the church in medieval Europe increased and churches united around one main church in Rome, then a monastic post arose. The main task was to maintain communication between European churches, monastic orders, numerous brotherhoods and the main church. There is no mention in history of a separate service in the church dealing with postal forwarding, but the fact of active communication between churches is confirmed by archaeologists with the help of monastic couriers.

With the advent of science-based universities, there has been a need for communication between them, as well as between students and each other and their families. A university post office emerged as a separate service, and messengers involved in the delivery of postal messages even had certain privileges.

The development of crafts, trade, science, and culture in Europe led to the development of postal relations, because people needed to quickly resolve emerging issues, and there was still no state postal service. This led to the emergence of messenger or courier services, and city post offices began to emerge, facilitating communication between artisans, merchants, scientists, artists, musicians, etc. After some time, ordinary people began to use the emerging services.

Then the institutions of city messengers arose. At this time, the concept of paying for the delivery of letters, parcels, etc. was born. at a certain rate. The services of such institutions were used by both nobles, government administrators, and ordinary people. Some city institutions even then began to become famous for the accuracy of the delivery time of postal messages.

Centralized mail, which worked for the needs of the state and dealt only with state postal forwarding, began to emerge in the 15th century in France.

Asia

After the fall of the Roman Empire, unlike Europe, a well-organized postal service almost immediately emerged in Asian countries with already functioning postal relations. The postal services were used by the nobility, but the lower strata of the population also received limited access. Postal couriers had insignia (yellow ribbons) so that they could be recognized from afar.

South and North America

According to archaeologists, Indian tribes such as the Incas, Aztecs and others also had a system for delivering postal messages using couriers. The couriers were runners who quickly covered long distances. At a certain distance from each other there were “post houses”, where one of the couriers passed a message to another and could stay to rest. Postal parcels were also delivered in this way. The number of postal houses and couriers themselves was very large. Postal messages were transmitted both in written and oral form.

XVI–XIX centuries

During this period of time, a system of centralized royal mail arose in the most developed countries of Europe (France, England, etc.). The idea and the first steps to recognize mail as a monopoly and a state responsibility were implemented in Germany in the 17th century. And with the beginning of industrial growth, the process of organizing fast postal services only accelerated; many states secured postal services. Almost all segments of the population could afford to use postal services. For transportation within countries, special mail coaches were often used. The transport of passengers was also considered postal transport.

A radical revolution in shipping occurred with the advent of steam engines, which were introduced on ships and trains. The mail delivery process has become significantly faster. All postal communications became available to all segments of the population and were carried out with almost all the most remote corners of the country; international relations also reached a new level.

In the 19th century, an envelope, a postage stamp, and parcels were invented. The post office began to acquire the organization of work that it has in modern times.

The expansion of rail and steamship transportation meant that a letter could travel across the entire globe in 80 days. Postal transportation gained popularity and post offices began to appear in almost every village. Post offices themselves also evolved and began to provide new services and operations to customers.

At the end of the 19th century, the telegraph was invented, radio, telephone and some functions of postal communication began to lose their relevance, but, nevertheless, mail did not lose its relevance.

Postage stamps also began to gain relevance as works of art.

In the 19th century, the Universal Postal Union was formed, which included many different countries.

The modern postal network provides postal services throughout the country, including all cities and rural areas. The full range of services provided by the post office has become enormous.

Antique cameos, these miniature creations of human hands, combine subtle grace and beauty. And although their age is estimated at more than a dozen centuries, looking at them, every viewer has the feeling that these images are about to come to life! Indeed, in ancient times in Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic states, this art reached the heights of perfection.

It’s not for nothing that it’s said about them: “ Gems are small, but they conquer centuries"(S. Reinak). The art of miniature carving on precious and semi-precious stones, glyptic, has been known since ancient times. At the same time, carved miniatures, called gems, can be of two types - with convex images (these are cameos) or with carved ones (intaglios).

Intaglios as stamps

Intaglios are a more ancient type of carving, and they experienced their heyday a very long time ago. Intaglios were usually carved on single-color stones for a practical purpose - for use as seals. Impressions were made on soft clay or wax, thus sealing the premises, sealing letters and documents. They also stamped some things, thereby marking their belonging to the owner of the intaglio.

Carving miniature intaglios is not an easy task; the carver must have a good idea of ​​what the inverted print will look like. The most commonly used materials for intaglios are varieties of quartz: carnelian and reddish chalcedony, as well as rock crystal.

Cameos - luxury items in Ancient Greece

Gems of Alexandria

A number of works they created have become famous masterpieces. These include the unique “Gonzaga Cameo”, “Farnese Cup”, “Ptolemy Cup” and others.

Their most brilliant work, recognized as an all-time masterpiece, was the “Cameo Gonzaga,” kept in the Hermitage.

A most beautiful cameo, one of the largest. There are two profiles carved on it - male and female. Most likely, this is Ptolemy II and his wife Arsinoe, who is also his sister.

This cameo did not escape the fate of many historical relics: it passed from one owner to another seven times until it ended up in St. Petersburg. Josephine gave it to Russian Emperor Alexander I in 1814 after France’s defeat in the war with Russia.

Glyptics in Ancient Rome

"August's Cameo"

This two-color cameo depicts Emperor Augustus surrounded by real historical figures and Roman gods.

"Gem of Tiberius"

It is clear that miniature stone carving is not at all a simple matter, requiring great skill and patience. In addition, the master must be able to discern the beauty in the stone and predict how the layers are located inside it. The carving process itself is very long. Creating one cameo can take not even months, but years of hard work. Experts compare the process of making one large cameo with the construction of an entire cathedral. Apparently, you have to love your job very much to do it.

But, despite all these difficulties, many beautiful specimens, real works of art, emerged from the chisels of ancient masters. And all subsequent years they remain the ideal of beauty and perfection, to which many glyptic masters strive.

Intaglio

Cameos

In the center of the cross there is a rather large cameo depicting Emperor Augustus. This cross was donated to the ancient and famous Aachen Cathedral by the German Emperor Otto III.

Cameo of Emperor Constantine, sardonyx, 4th century AD. e., Constantine and Tyche. Sardonyx. Roman work. IV century St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum.

The best collections of cameos are in the museums of Vienna, Paris and St. Petersburg. Largely thanks to the efforts of Catherine II, who adored cameos and collected them, the Hermitage collection of antique cameos is one of the largest in the world. And today they impress the most sophisticated connoisseurs.

| POSTAL SERVICES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

Although the word "mail" appeared in ancient Rome only at the turn of our era, for convenience it is customary to refer to various communication services that existed earlier. The same applies to terms such as “postmaster”, “sending correspondence” and others.

Post office in the land of the pyramids. It is known that already under the pharaohs of the IV dynasty (2900 - 2700 BC) there was a post office in Egypt with foot (fast) and horse-drawn messengers plying along military roads to Libya, Abyssinia, and Arabia. The local population was obliged to provide accommodation for the messengers. The pharaohs, in the form of special privileges, exempted individual cities from this duty. Information about this is found in ancient papyri. For example, Pharaoh Piopi (Lepi) II from the VI dynasty, which ruled the Old Kingdom in 2500 - 2400. BC e., granted benefits to the cities of Koptu and Dashur: “My Majesty has commanded that for the sake of King Sneferu this city should be freed from all kinds of work and duties assigned in favor of the royal house and court... so that all tenants of this city will be free from housing couriers going by water or land, up or down, for eternity..."

The service of royal messengers was difficult and dangerous. According to the customs of that time, a messenger who brought bad news could be executed by an angry ruler. A story about the dangers and hardships of such service was preserved in the diary of a scientist dating back to the XII Dynasty (2000 - 1788 BC): “When a messenger goes to a foreign country, he bequeaths his property to his children for fear of lions and Asians And if he returned to Egypt, as soon as he reached the garden, as soon as he reached his house in the evening, he must soon get ready for the journey again.” The author bequeaths to his son: “Become whoever you want, but not a messenger.”

Letters were most often written on papyrus, rolled into a tube, tied with twine, and sealed with a clay seal.

Egyptian fellahs in Tel el-Amarna, where Akheta-ton, the capital of the Egyptian king Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) (1419 - 1400 BC), was located in ancient times, found his archive of foreign affairs in 1887. Several hundred clay tablets written in Babylonian cuneiform contained correspondence between the pharaoh and the kings of the Babylonian, Hittite, Mitanni and Assyrian states, as well as reports to the Egyptian king from the princes of the Syrian and Phoenician cities subordinate to him.

20 years later, in 1906, not far from Ankara, near the village of Boğazköy, the expedition of Professor G. Winkler excavated the Hittite capital Hattusas and found another huge archive (about 15 thousand clay tablets). Among various documents, many letters in Hittite, Akkadian and other languages ​​were kept here. The letters dated mainly from the 14th to 13th centuries. BC e.

Among them was found the famous letter from the widow of the early deceased pharaoh Tutankhamun to the Hittite king Suppilulium. “My husband is dead, I don’t have a son,” she wrote. “And you, they say, have many sons. If you give me one of them, he will be my husband. Why should I, a slave or something, take my own as a husband?” and honor him?"

On the roads of the huge Achamenid kingdom. The most advanced postal system for its time began to be created by the Persian king Cyrus II the Great (? -530 BC); it reached its highest level under Darius I (522 - 486 BC). In order to more firmly keep numerous peoples in subjection over a vast territory, it was necessary to have a powerful and developed network of roads. Persian roads not only had much in common with Assyrian military roads, but were superior to them; they can be called the predecessors of Roman roads. One of the main roads, the royal one, went from Sardis on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor through Armenia and Assyria to the south of Mesopotamia to Susa. Two other roads branched off from it: one to Tire and Sidon, the other to the borders of Bactria and India. There were many other roads.

The Greek historians Herodotus (484 -425 BC) and Xenophon (430 - 355 BC) admired the condition of the roads and the clarity of the organization of the courier service. Herodotus, who traveled in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. on the Persian state, noted that the roads gave him the opportunity to get to know the country in detail. Along the entire length of the royal road there were royal hotels with beautiful living quarters. Troops were stationed at various points to ensure the safety of mail, travelers, and merchants with goods. To cover the route from Sardis to Susa (about 2,300 kilometers), the traveler, according to Herodotus, needed about 90 days.

The royal mail was delivered much faster. The distance of 20 kilometers between the hotel stations was divided into parasangs (five kilometers), at the end of which there were pickets of couriers, always ready to hit the road. The mail was transmitted according to the principle of a relay race: the rider, having received the mail, raced at full speed to the neighboring picket, passed the package to another, who raced further. Therefore, the state mail covered the enormous distance from end to end of the royal road in six to eight days, passing 111 stations.

The Greeks called this post office "angareion", and the messengers called it "angara". “The Persians were so skillful in organizing the transmission of news,” writes Herodotus, “that no one in the world can surpass their messengers... Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness will delay the messengers of King Darius, will not prevent them from rushing at the highest speed the section of the path allocated to him. . Nothing in the world is carried out as quickly as orders delivered by his couriers. Herodotus is echoed by Xenophon, who writes about the messengers of Cyrus the Younger (? - 401 BC): “No one in the world can compete with them in speed, pigeons and cranes can barely keep up with them.”

The Persians were the first to introduce regular postal service, which is now commonly called military fieldhowl mail. Behind the army on its aggressive campaign was a special service that maintained postal communications with the capital of the state. There is information that particularly important and urgent military news and orders were transmitted from picket to picket by fire signals.

Under the Hellas sky. The peculiarities of the political life of ancient Greece determined the uniqueness of its postal communications. Numerous small states and city-states did not maintain regular postal communication among themselves - they simply did not need it. If there was a need to convey important news (for example, military news), then they used sea vessels (to communicate with the islands and numerous colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas) or hemerodromes - “day messengers” (if necessary, they fled at night). Grammatophores (“letter carriers”) were used to transmit news over short distances. The service of both was considered responsible and honorable. Hardy and fast runners were selected for it, often Olympians - winners of the Olympic Games.

History has preserved information about Lasthenes, a hemerodrome from Thebes, who overtook fleet-footed horses over long distances. His friend Efhid accomplished a feat by sacrificing his life, like the famous marathon messenger. Efhid ran more than 200 kilometers to deliver the sacred fire from the Delphic Temple when the sacred fire in the temple on the Acropolis of Athens went out due to the oversight of the priestess. Efkhid ran so fast that, returning to Athens, he died from overwork. Another famous messenger, Philip, ran 225 kilometers in 24 hours to convey to the Lacedaemonians the Athenians' request for military assistance against the invading Persians.

In ancient Rome. In the vast expanses of the ancient Roman state and the countries conquered by Rome, from the Middle East to Britain, an extensive communication system operating according to clear regulations was created. Postal service existed even during the times of the Republic, but was streamlined by Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), was improved during the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), and reached its peak under the emperors Nerva , Trajan, Hadrian (96 - 138 AD). Individual routes with a total length of about 100,000 kilometers were gradually combined into a single system. The postal service was called "cursus publis" - public mail. To be fair, we note that this name did not entirely correspond to the truth: only members of the imperial family, patricians, officials, and legionnaires could use the mail. But over time, for a certain fee, the post office began to serve wider sections of Roman free citizens. At a distance of one day's travel there were the main postal stations - mansios, where one could change the cart, the driver, eat and spend the night. Between two mansios there were usually six to eight intermediate stations - mutations, where horses were changed if necessary. Mail was delivered by both foot ambassadors (cursorius) and mounted messengers (veredarii). In addition to letters, passengers and cargo were transported. For this, strictly defined types of carts were used (Fig. 14, A)- from light two-wheeled ones, drawn by horses, to heavy four-wheeled ones, which were harnessed by 8-10 horses, mules, donkeys or oxen. Everything was described down to the smallest detail: the types of shipments, the carrying capacity of the carts, the categories of passengers and employees, their contents, etc.

We owe the appearance of the word “mail” to this communication system. The stations did not have special names. If it was necessary to indicate a station, they wrote or said: “the station located at the point N" or "an intermediate station located at a point NN". From the word “posita” - “located” - the word “mail” arose over time, which in the 13th century. included in most European languages. Many researchers believe that the word "mail" in medieval Europe was first used in Italian ("poeste") in 1298 in Marco Polo's famous book "Travels"

The most powerful state formation of the ancient world, of course, is Ancient Rome. This city not only subjugated the Apennine Peninsula, but also spread its possessions over a vast territory: from Britain to North Africa and from the Iberian Peninsula to Syria.
Capital connection with remote provinces became an urgent necessity for Rome.

For this purpose, an unprecedented network of high-quality, stone-paved roads was built. Their total length already at the time of Gaius Julius Caesar was 150 thousand kilometers.
By the way, the catchphrase " All roads lead to Rome" is not as metaphorical as it seems at first glance. The oldest and widest roads really, like rays, converged in the capital of the empire. It was along these roads that legions went from Rome to war or to suppress rebellions.

The Appian Way, preserved to this day.

Although the basics of regular state post office It was laid down by Julius Caesar, and it acquired its canonical form under Augustus. It was he who united all the routes into a single network, which was called " kursus publis". This mail was controlled personally by the emperor and was intended exclusively for state needs. State officials managing the post office were required to have a “diploma” - a document certifying their services to the state. In the provinces postal service was controlled by governors, and its maintenance fell entirely on the shoulders of the local population, which was supposed to supply mail carts, horses and riders.

Foot messengers were called " tablelariums". Insignia Roman couriers became a headdress, first decorated with feathers and then with stylized wings. After all, he wore a similar winged helmet Mercury- messenger of the gods and patron of trade.

Urgent messages were delivered by horse messengers, and valuable government cargo was transported on carts. Mounted messengers called "beredos" - from the Persian word "berd", meaning "animal of burden".
Not all Roman provinces could be reached by land, and in this case for mail transportation used ships

“Suddenly today we have ships from Alexandria, which usually go ahead and announce the arrival of the fleet following them. That’s why they are also called mail ships.”

The main advantage " kursus publis"There was a well-established system of road post stations.
The stations were divided into two categories. The so-called "mancios" were well-appointed inns, painted red. Here the messengers were offered not only lodging and food, but also an extensive network of services. The “Mancio” was run by a chief manceps, under whose leadership were the “stationarius” (stable keepers), “hippocomas” (grooms), “muliones” (mule drivers), “mulomedicus” (veterinarians) and “carpentarii” (cart keepers).
It is believed that it is from the Latin expression "mansio posita in..." ("A station located at a point") subsequently the modern concept " post" - "mail".
In addition, between the two "mancios" there were 6-8 intermediate small stations - "mutatsio", which served primarily for changing horses.

“Cursus Publique”, reconstruction by L. Burger.

To ensure traffic safety, the Romans set up military camps along important routes, which at the same time also served as a construction battalion - i.e. repaired the roads.
At busy intersections, special walls even appeared, playing the role of original newspapers. Everyone wrote whatever they wanted on them - from news and announcements to epigrams and love notes like “Mark loves Elena.” No wonder some joker wrote the following on one of these walls: “I am surprised at you, wall, how you don’t collapse, continuing to carry so many trashy inscriptions.”.

About how effective it was" kursus publis"is evidenced by the following fact. If Julius Caesar, constantly changing horses, could cover no more than 100 miles a day, then Emperor Tiberius, using the services postal service, moved twice as fast. As a result, the rulers of the Roman Empire received fresh news quite regularly.

But private correspondence was prohibited through state mail. Therefore, the wealthiest of Roman citizens had their own messengers from among the slaves. Such a speedboat could travel about 70 km per day. If the message had to be sent over a long distance, then it was transmitted through traders or traveling acquaintances. True, such messages arrived much slower than government ones. There is a known case of a certain Augustus (not the emperor) received a letter only nine years later.

Seneca, from Letters to Lucilius:
“I received your letter only many months after it was sent. Therefore, I considered it unnecessary to ask the person who delivered it about your life.”

Unfortunately, the achievements of the Romans were forgotten for a long time, after the empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians, and Europe plunged into the “dark ages” for a long time. Decline postal service was so strong that even in the 16th century the messenger moved one and a half times slower than roman courier during its heyday" kursus publis".

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Postal history

Postal history: how postal services appeared

Even in ancient times, people felt the need to receive various news from other countries or populated areas. Oral or written news was brought to the city by messengers. But the more perfect human civilization became, the more changes occurred in the methods and forms of postal communication.

It was through the use of voice to convey information that articulate speech arose. But, the disadvantage of this method of transmitting news was that the human voice is heard only at a short distance. As a result of this, hollow tree trunks and drums were used to amplify the voice, notifying the people of the approach of a messenger. At first, messengers covered various distances on foot, and later horse-mounted messengers appeared. In ancient times, state postal communication was established, which consisted of written messages delivered by messengers according to the relay race principle.

The beginning of the emergence of postal communication is the birth of writing. Since the emergence of slave-holding countries, there has been a need for rulers to be aware of everything that is happening in their country. THEN postal communication became streamlined. The first institutions of such postal service appeared in ancient times. At first, these institutions were exclusively military in nature. Postal communications were considered the most developed in Egypt; they can be considered the predecessor of modern mail.

The mail of Ancient Egypt consisted of numerous messengers supplying the pharaohs with information. Messengers needed to cover long distances in the shortest possible time, so carrier pigeons were also used as postmen. Such a postal system gradually began to appear in other countries.

In Ancient Rome, only the rich could afford their own messengers. The state post office was founded by Julius Caesar. It was subordinated directly to the emperor and was not intended for private use. On land, postal transportation was carried out with the help of horses, and by sea they were transported on ships. In large centers there were special stations that served as shelter for horsemen during the long journey. Here, prepared horses and carts awaited them in case of such need. Between every two such stations there were smaller ones. The phrase used in those days was “Statio posita in...” which meant “a station located at...”. It is from the word “posita” that the word “post” comes from.

With the development of trade and crafts, interest in the transmission of messages increased, sending letters. This contributed to the emergence of various messenger services and posts that served artisans and merchants. Merchant mail was located in large trading houses that had their own couriers.

In the 19th century, with the advent of railways and shipping, and in the 20th century also the airplane, the speed of mail delivery increased significantly. The post office acquired national importance and began to serve all citizens. The railway network developed rapidly and the number of trains increased daily, and the number of post offices increased accordingly. Mail has become more improved, cheap postal rates have appeared, as well as a number of new trade operations and postal services.

Even when the telephone, telegraph and radio were invented in 1876, mail did not lose its important role as a means of mass communication.