The Panama Canal is owned by the state. Panama Canal - from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean between the Americas - Traveler's Page

The world is full of amazing buildings and structures built by the best engineers in history. Among some of the most important structures in human history are Panama Canal. This shipping canal acts as a bridge between the Pacific and Atlantic zones, which greatly facilitated trade by sea. For example, a ship traveling between San Francisco and New York had to travel 14,000 miles, but the Panama Canal reduced that distance to 6,000 miles. Construction was started by the French in the 19th century, but they were never able to complete the project due to various problems. The American government took over the project in 1904 and completed it a decade later, making history. The canal is now managed by the Panamanian government.

The Panama Canal not only benefits traders by facilitating the transit of goods, but is also important from a tourism perspective. Canal cruises are very popular and if you are planning to visit this area then don't miss the chance to travel along the canal on a cruise ship. During this trip you will be able to explore the many exotic attractions of Panama. Travel agencies will offer you hundreds of different cruise packages, including a number of popular ports such as New York, Miami, Los Angeles, New Orleans, etc. This tour will allow you to see some of the most beautiful beaches in the world and visit exotic Panama City.

History of the Channel

In fact, the history of the canal goes back much deeper - to the 16th century. In 1513, Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa became the first European to notice the extremely thin Isthmus of Panama separating the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Balboa's discovery sparked the search for a natural waterway linking the two oceans. In 1534, after no natural route was found, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ordered an investigation into the possibility of constructing a canal. Inspectors ultimately decided that construction of a shipping canal in these areas was impossible.

Start of construction

Interesting facts in the history of the Panama Canal is another construction attempt undertaken by the designer of the Suez Canal. There were no serious attempts at construction until the 1880s. In 1881, the French company of Ferdinand de Lesseps, designer of the Suez Canal in Egypt, began digging a canal through Panama. The project was plagued by poor planning, technical problems and tropical diseases that killed thousands of workers. De Lessep intended to build a canal at sea level, in the image of Suez, without any locks. But the excavation process turned out to be much more difficult than expected. Gustave Eiffel, who designed the famous tower in Paris, was hired to build the locks, but De Lessep's company went bankrupt in 1889. At the time, the French had unprofitably invested more than $260 million in the construction, excavating more than 70 million cubic meters of earth.


The collapse of the enterprise caused a big scandal in France. De Lessep and his son Charles, along with Eiffel and several other company executives, were accused of embezzlement, mismanagement and fraud. In 1893 they were found guilty, sentenced to prison and fined. After the scandal, Eiffel retired from business and devoted himself to scientific research. A new French company was created to take over the assets of the failed business and continue the channel, but it soon followed the same path.


During the 1800s, the United States was also interested in building a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. For both economic and military reasons, they considered Nicaragua a more advantageous location than Panama. However, this plan was abandoned thanks to the efforts of Philippe-Jean Bounau-Varilla, a French engineer who was involved in both French canal projects. In the late 1890s, Buno-Varilla began lobbying American legislators to purchase French canal assets in Panama, and eventually convinced many that Nicaragua had dangerous volcanoes and Panama was a less dangerous option.


In 1902, Congress authorized the purchase of French assets of the Panama Canal. But Colombia, of which Panama was a part at the time, refused to ratify the agreement. With the support of Buno-Varilla and the tacit approval of President Theodore Roosevelt, Panama rebelled against Colombia and declared independence. After this, US Secretary of State John Hay and Buno-Varilla, as representative of the provisional government of Panama, agreed on the Hay-Buno-Varilla Agreement, which gave America the right to a zone greater than 500 square miles in which a canal could be built. According to the agreement, the channel was completely transferred to the control of the Americans. It was agreed that the United States would shell out approximately $375 million for construction, including a $10 million payment to Panama, and $40 million to buy out French assets.


A century after the United States completed the Panama Canal, shipping connections through Nicaragua still remain possible: In 2013, a Chinese company announced a $40 billion agreement with the Nicaraguan government for the right to build such a waterway.

Death of workers

More than 25,000 workers officially died during the construction of the Panama Canal. The canal's builders faced many obstacles, including difficult terrain, hot, humid weather, heavy rain, and rampant tropical diseases. Earlier French efforts resulted in the death of more than 20,000 workers, and American efforts fared little better—between 1904 and 1913, about 5,600 workers died due to illnesses or accidents.

Many of these earlier deaths were caused by yellow fever and malaria. According to doctors of the time, these diseases were caused by polluted air and poor conditions. By the early 20th century, however, medical experts had uncovered the key role mosquitoes played in transmitting these diseases, allowing them to significantly reduce the number of worker deaths. Special sanitary measures were carried out, which included draining swamps and ponds, removing possible insect breeding grounds, and installing protective screens on windows in buildings.

Capacity of the Panama Canal

Between 13,000 and 14,000 ships use the canal every year.
American ships use the canal most frequently, pursued by China, Chile, Japan, Colombia and South Korea. Each ship transiting through the canal must pay a fee based on its size and cargo volume. The fee for the largest vessels can reach approximately $450,000. The smallest toll ever paid was 36 cents, paid in 1928 by American adventurer Richard Halliburton, who conquered the canal. Today, approximately $1.8 billion in tariffs are collected annually.


On average, a ship takes 8 to 10 hours to pass through the canal. Moving through it, a system of locks lifts each vessel 85 feet above sea level. Ship captains are not allowed to take control during transit; instead, specially trained personnel take over control. In 2010, the millionth ship crossed the canal since its opening.

Who controls the Panama Canal?

The United States transferred control of the canal to Panama in 1999. In the years following the canal's opening, relations between America and Panama became tense. Questions arose about control over the canal itself and the area adjacent to it. In 1964, Panamanians rioted because they were not allowed to fly the Panamanian national flag next to the US flag in the canal zone. Following the uprising, Panama temporarily broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signed agreements transferring control of the canal to Panama as of 1999, but giving the United States the right to use a force to defend the waterway from any threat to its neutrality. Despite the discontent of many politicians who did not want their country to lose its authority over the canal, the US Senate ratified the Torrijos-Carter Accords in 1978. Control was transferred peacefully to Panama in December 1999.

Expansion of the Panama Canal

IN at the moment The canal is being expanded to accommodate modern megaships. Work on the expansion began in 2007 at a cost of $5.25 billion, which will allow the canal to accommodate post-Panamax vessels. These vessels are larger than the so-called Panamaxes, built to fit the canal's dimensions. The expanded canal will be able to accommodate cargo ships carrying 14,000 20-foot containers, nearly three times its current volume. The expansion project will be completed at the end of 2015, but the canal will still not be able to accommodate some of the world's largest container ships.

Approximately 236.4 million liters of fresh water are used for the passage of one ship through the Panama Canal. The water comes from Lake Gatun, formed during the construction of the canal by damming the Chagres River. With an area of ​​262 square kilometers, Gatun was once the largest artificial lake in the world.

The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the largest and most complex construction projects undertaken by mankind. The Panama Canal had an invaluable influence on the development of shipping and the economy as a whole in the Western Hemisphere and throughout the world, which led to its extremely high geopolitical significance. Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km.

The narrow isthmus connecting North and South America has been considered a very promising place for creating the shortest route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans since the 16th century. In the 19th century, the development of technology and the need for such a route reached a point where the plan to create a canal through Panama seemed quite feasible.

In the 19th century, the development of technology and the need for such a route reached a point where the plan to create a canal through Panama seemed quite feasible.

1910 Map of the planned canal.

Inspired by the 10-year construction of the Suez Canal, the international company La Société Internationale du Canal Interocéanique in 1879 bought from the engineer Wise for 10 million francs the concession for the construction of the Panama Canal, which he received from the Colombian government, which controlled Panama at that time.

Fundraising for large-scale construction was led by Ferdinand Lesseps. Success with the Suez Canal helped him raise millions for the new project.

Soon after the design of the canal began, it became clear that this undertaking would be much more difficult to implement than digging a canal at sea level through the sandy desert. After all, the proposed route, 65 kilometers long, passed through rocky and sometimes mountainous terrain, while it was crossed by powerful rivers. And, most importantly, tropical diseases posed enormous health risks to workers.

However, Lesseps' optimistic plan envisaged the construction of a canal costing $120 million in just 6 years. The 40,000-strong team, almost entirely consisting of workers from the West Indies, was headed by engineers from France.

1885 French Panama Canal employees pose for a photograph.

Construction began in 1881.

1885 The workers came to receive their wages.

The Suez experience was of little help. It would probably be better in the long run if they didn't have the Suez Canal in their past.
David McCullough, "The Way Between the Seas"

1885 Jamaican workers push a cart loaded with dirt along a narrow gauge railway.

The project turned out to be a disaster. It quickly became apparent that building a canal at sea level was impossible and that the only workable plan was to build a chain of locks. At the same time, Lesseps stubbornly adhered to the plan to build a single-level canal.

1900 Workers carry out excavation work manually.

Meanwhile, workers and engineers died from malaria, yellow fever and dysentery, and construction was interrupted by frequent floods and landslides. By the time the gateway plan was adopted, it was already too late. An estimated 22,000 workers died. Construction was years behind schedule and cost hundreds of millions over budget.

1910 Abandoned French equipment in the canal zone.

The company went bankrupt and collapsed, destroying the hopes of 800 thousand investors. In 1893, Lesseps was found guilty of fraud and mismanagement and died in disgrace two years later.

1906 A man stands next to an abandoned French dredger.

In 1903, with the secret support of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia and in return awarded the US rights to the canal. The following year, the United States acquired the remains of the French company and continued construction.

1906 President Theodore Roosevelt sits in the cab of a crane during a visit to the canal construction site.

I took the canal zone and let Congress debate; and while the debate continues, the channel does the same.
Theodore Roosevelt

1908 American engineers sent by President Roosevelt.

Faced with the same disease problem as the French, the Americans embarked on an aggressive mosquito eradication campaign. (Back then the connection between malaria and mosquitoes was still very new theory). This sharply reduced the incidence of illness and increased productivity.

1910 Mosquito exterminator at work in the canal area.

The channel of the Chagres River was blocked by the Gatun Dam, creating Lake Gatun, the largest artificial lake of those times. It stretches across half of a narrow isthmus.

January 1907. Earthworks at the site of the Gatun lock.

Massive locks were built at both ends of the canal on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. These 33-meter-wide structures allowed ships to pass through a series of chambers with controlled water levels, rising to the height of Gatun Lake and the canal, 26 meters above sea level.

1910

The most difficult was the passage of the 13-kilometer section of Culebra through a mountain range, 64 meters high. 27 thousand tons of dynamite were used to blow up almost 80 million cubic meters of earth removed by steam shovels and trains.

1907 A dredge removes soil after a landslide in Culebra.

Due to an incorrect assessment of the composition of geological strata, excavation work was constantly subject to unpredictable landslides, the consequences of which sometimes took several months to combat.

1910 The railway, displaced after a landslide.


April 8, 1910. A man stands on the west bank next to the Pedro Miguel Lock under construction.


November 1910. President William Howard Taft (left) visiting Gatun Lock with Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes (seated right) and Chief Engineer Colonel George Goethals (standing right).


November 10, 1912. Construction of the Miraflores lock.


August 1912. A man is standing in one of the locks.


June 1912. View of the construction of the Culebra section from the western shore.


August 6, 1912.


November 1912. View from the top of Gatun Lock looking north towards the Atlantic Ocean.


June 1913. One of the deepest points on the Culebra stretch.


1913


1913


1913


November 1913. Workers are struggling with the consequences of a landslide.


1913 Workers take a break at the top of the lock.


1913 The train and the crane crossed paths at the Pedro Miguel lock.


1913 Gateway during construction.


1913 Engineers stand in front of the canal's massive sluice gates.


August 8, 1913. Construction of the Gatun Lock between the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Gatun.


February 1, 1914. Men watch a dredge work to clean up the aftermath of a landslide in Cucarache.


1913 The spillway of the Gatun Dam, which separates the artificial Gatun Lake, the main part of the canal.

On December 10, 1913, a passable water route between the two oceans was finally created. On January 7, 1914, the French floating crane Alexandre La Valley made its first passage through the canal.

October 9, 1913. An explosion near the city of Gamboa opens the way for the canal to the Pacific Ocean.


1913 The explosion of the dam that separated the canal from the Atlantic Ocean.

Today, 4% of all world trade passes through the Panama Canal, about 15 thousand ships a year. Plans are underway to build additional set wide locks, as well as a competing channel through Nicaragua.

The largest fee for passage through the canal is 142 thousand for a cruise ship. The smallest fee was $0.36 for adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam across the canal through the locks in 1928.

1913


1914


October 1913. The Miraflores Lock gate opens for inspection.


September 26, 1913. Tug U.S. Gaton is the first to pass through the Gatun lock.


April 29, 1915. S.S. Kronland passes through the Panama Canal.

The length of the Panama Canal from deep to deep water is 81.6 km, the minimum width is 150 m, the guaranteed depth is 12 m, the size of the chambers of the paired locks is 305 by 33.5 m. The watershed section of the canal, 51 km long, lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level Entering from the Atlantic Ocean, ships rise through the three steps of the Gatun Locks into the artificial Lake Gatun, which is formed by the Gatun Dam across the Chagres River and lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level. In 1935, the reservoir's capacity was increased by the construction of the Madden Dam on the upper Chagres, creating Lake Madden. From Lake Gatun, ships pass the 12-kilometer Culebra Notch, descend through the Pedro Miguel locks into Lake Miraflores (16 m above sea level), pass the two-stage Miraflores locks and exit into the Gulf of Panama. The average transit time for ships through the canal is 7–8 hours. Two-way traffic is not possible only for large-tonnage vessels in the Culebra excavation section.

The first European to cross the Isthmus of Panama was the Spanish conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1513. During the colonial era, plans to build a transoceanic canal were repeatedly raised and never realized. US interest in the idea of ​​​​building a canal became apparent during the California gold rush of 1848. In 1850, the US and Great Britain entered into the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, according to which the parties refused to acquire exclusive rights to the future canal and pledged to guarantee its neutrality.

In 1878, France received from Colombia, which until 1903 included Panama, a 99-year concession for the construction of the canal. In 1879, a company was created under the leadership of Ferdinand Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, and work began two years later. However, in 1887 the company went bankrupt due to high prices, financial scams and high worker mortality. At that time, the United States was exploring the possibility of laying a transoceanic canal through the territory of Nicaragua, and three years later a commission specially created in 1899 came to the conclusion that this option was more rational. The United States gained freedom of action in 1901 when it concluded the Hay-Pouncefort Treaty with Great Britain, which annulled the previous treaty. The French company was afraid of losing all its investments if a canal was built through Nicaragua and offered the United States all the rights and its property in Panama for $40 million. The North American Commission recommended acceptance of these terms, and in 1902 Congress approved the project and began negotiations with Colombia.

In 1903, under President Roosevelt, the Hay-Herran Treaty on the construction of a canal was signed between the United States and Colombia. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Then the United States began to support the Panamanian separatists and did not allow Colombian troops to land on the isthmus to suppress the uprising. As a result, on November 3, 1903, Panama declared its secession from Colombia and its independence as a separate state.

Already on November 18, 1903, the United States and the government of the newly formed republic signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty, according to which the North Americans received full control over a 10-mile wide zone running in a strip across the entire isthmus. The United States paid Panama $10 million and pledged to pay another $250,000 annually. At the same time, Panama actually became a US protectorate. In 1914, the United States signed the Thompson-Urrutia Treaty with Colombia, which ensured Colombia's recognition of Panama's independence for certain compensation. The US Senate delayed ratification of the treaty, and only in 1921 Colombia received the promised $25 million.

In 1905, an expert council appointed by President Roosevelt recommended building a lock-free canal, but Congress adopted the lock canal project. At first, the work was carried out under the direction of civil engineers, but from 1907 the construction took over War Ministry. He was also responsible for medical control over sanitary conditions and the treatment of tropical diseases. The French, who began construction, excavated 23 million cubic meters. m of land along the canal route; North Americans still had 208 million cubic meters left to extract. m. The first ship passed through the Isthmus of Panama on August 15, 1914, but the canal actually went into operation after the official opening on June 12, 1920. According to government sources, the construction of the canal cost $380 million.

Panama Canal Zone.

The Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty of 1903 gave the United States possession of a total of 1,432 sq. km of Panamanian territory, including lakes Gatun and Alajuela, later renamed Lake Madden. Until 1979, the management of the canal zone was closely linked with the administration of the canal itself. The zone's governor was a general in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the zone had its own police and fire departments, courts, post office, medical facilities, and English-language schools.

Panama Canal in international relations.

In diplomatic relations between Panama and the United States, problems related to the canal zone have always come to the fore. Panama sought to expand its participation in the management of the canal, increase its share of profits, and protested against discrimination against Panamanians working in the zone. Under the Hull-Alfaro Treaty of 1936, some enslaving provisions of the 1903 Treaty were canceled and revised. In particular, the United States renounced the right of military intervention in the internal affairs of Panama and the monopoly on communications across the isthmus, granted the Panamanians the right to trade in the canal zone and increased annual payments to 430 thousand dollars.

The Eisenhower-Remona Treaty of 1955 transferred US property outside the canal zone to Panama worth $24 million, increased the annual rent to $1 million 930 thousand, obligated the US to build a bridge across the canal (completed in 1962) and establish water supply to the cities of Colon and Panama , deprived North American entrepreneurs of a number of benefits, limited discrimination against Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone, and gave the Panamanian government the right to levy taxes on its citizens working in the zone and on foreigners (except Americans) working outside the zone.

In 1959, clashes between Panamanians and US police occurred in the canal zone. After negotiations in 1960, the United States agreed to hang the flags of two states - the United States and Panama - on the border of the zone. In further agreements in 1962, the United States allowed the Panamanian flag to be flown through the zone and agreed to continue discussions on other issues, including equal pay for Americans and Panamanians in the Canal Zone. In January 1964, after American students refused to fly the Panamanian flag along with their flag, further riots broke out, leading to a severance of diplomatic relations. Panama again demanded to reconsider the terms of the 1903 treaty. In April 1964, diplomatic relations were restored.

In 1967, a draft treaty was developed on Panama's sovereignty over the canal zone and the creation of a unified canal management, but in 1970 Panama rejected this project. Negotiations resumed in 1971 led to the signing of two agreements in 1977, according to which on October 1, 1979 the canal zone came under the jurisdiction of Panama, and by 2000 the United States pledged to transfer the canal itself to Panama. However, the North Americans reserved the right to military intervention if necessary to protect the canal and maintain its neutrality. According to the agreements, a Panama Canal Commission was created to operate the canal. Until 1990, the Commission was headed by a US citizen, appointed by the US President; after 1990 and until the transfer of the channel in December 1999, it was headed by a Panamanian citizen, also appointed by the US President.

The construction of the canal, as we remember, was started by French companies, but they were unable to complete the project due to bankruptcy. The construction that had begun was bought by the United States, which concluded an agreement in 1903 to transfer the canal for perpetual use. In addition to receiving the canal and the surrounding land under full control, under this treaty the United States was given the right to station its troops at any time in any area of ​​Panama and, in general, was allowed to feel at home. The contract price was $10 million plus an annual rent of $250 thousand.

An interesting fact in the history of Panama. As you know, Panama for a long time was a colony of Spain, and in 1821 became part of the federal Colombia. The struggle for independence here continued throughout Panama's history, with occasional uprisings and movements for freedom from Colombia. But, oddly enough, it was the United States that helped Panama gain independence. Of course, the intentions of the United States were far from noble; their main goal was, after all, the Panama Canal, and here’s why. To sign an agreement on the transfer of rights to the channel, the consent of at least two parties was required.

At the same time, separatist sentiments intensified in Panama by the beginning of the 20th century, which was right in the hands of the United States. But a certain threat was posed by the troops of Colombia, whose authorities did not want to just give up Panama. That is why, in order to ensure security, and indeed the very fact of concluding the agreement, the United States paid Colombia 25 million dollars for the independence of Panama.

Colombia agreed to "let go" of Panama in 1903, although Panama's freedom can only be said to be provisional as it immediately came under de facto US control.

Panama Canal. According to an agreement concluded in 1846 between the United States and New Grenada (which later became the Republic of Colombia), the United States was granted the right of free transit through the Isthmus of Panama along all routes of communication existing or that could be built in the future, in return for which the United States guaranteed the neutrality of the isthmus.

US-Colombian treaties:

1) The American-Colombian Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Navigation and Trade of 1846 was concluded in the capital of Colombia, Bogota, on XII 12th between the USA and Colombia (then New Grenada). Of particular importance is Art. Treaty XXXV regarding the construction of an interoceanic route through the Isthmus of Panama. Under the agreement, the United States received equal rights with New Grenada to operate the transit route planned across the Isthmus of Panama (regardless of whether it would be a railway or a canal). The United States guaranteed New Grenada sovereignty over the isthmus in return for the obligation that this route would be open at all times to the United States. A. -k.d. 1846 was the first link in a long chain of subsequent conventions in connection with various projects for inter-oceanic communication through Central America and the struggle of the United States with England and France over this issue.

The United States was in a hurry to conclude the American-Colombian Treaty in order to get ahead of England and France, who at that time were negotiating with Nicaragua on the construction of an interoceanic canal through the territory of Nicaragua. The aggravation of the diplomatic struggle between the United States and England over the construction of the canal ended in 1850 with the conclusion of a compromise agreement (see.<<Клейтон-Бульвера договор>>).

2) American-Colombian Treaty of 1921 - concluded in Washington back in 1913, but ratified with amendments by the US Senate only on April 20, 1921, settled the conflict that arose between the United States and Colombia in connection with the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903. The agreement was preceded by lengthy diplomatic negotiations . Colombia refused to recognize Panama's independence, demanding that the conflict be referred to arbitration. The US government rejected this demand, and in January 1909, before the end of President T. Roosevelt's term, entered into an agreement with Colombia, promising it monetary compensation and benefits for using the canal in peacetime and wartime. When the terms of the agreement were published, the Colombian government was overthrown and the Colombian commissioner for these negotiations was forced to emigrate from Colombia.

In September 1912, negotiations between the United States and Columbia resumed, and after Wilson, who replaced Taft in March 1913, came to power, the new Secretary of State Bryan concluded an agreement with Columbia. etc., according to which the United States provided Colombia with benefits in using the canal and paid it $25 million. Colombia, for its part, promised to recognize the independence of Panama, as well as the Panamanian border established by the treaty. In the summer of 191.4, when the treaty came to the US Senate for ratification, former President T. Roosevelt, on whose initiative Panama was separated from Colombia in 1903, launched a protest campaign. As a result of this campaign, the Senate was able to ratify the treaty only 2 years after the death of T. Roosevelt, when the Harding government that replaced Wilson on March 4, 1921, under the influence of oil companies interested in Colombian oil, put pressure on the Senate. The treaty entered into force on March 30, 1922, after its ratification by Colombia.

In 1849, the US representative in Guatemala, without the corresponding authority of his government, concluded a convention with the government of Nicaragua, according to which the US received the exclusive right to construct a transport route between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Along this route, the United States could build fortifications and maintain troops, and if the United States participated in the war, close the canal to enemy military and merchant ships.

However, the United States refrained from ratifying this convention, fearing that it could cause complications in relations with Great Britain, which also sought to construct a canal under its control in Nicaragua and was taking measures to seize the ports that would serve as the canal's terminus during its construction.

In this regard, the content of the convention was changed, and the new convention provided for the United States only the right of free passage through the canal that was about to be constructed, with the obligation of the United States to guarantee the neutrality of the canal and the protection of the sovereignty of Nicaragua in relation to the territories adjacent to the canal, as well as the ports that will serve its final destinations.

The convention also contained a clause that the same rights should be granted to other countries, since they would have entered into similar agreements with Nicaragua. But this convention was not ratified by the United States. In order to eliminate the growing aggravation of relations between the United States and Great Britain in 1850, on the initiative of the United States, the so-called Clayton-Bulwer agreement (see). This agreement was supposed to determine the international legal regime of the future channel. It obliged each of the contracting states not to subject the canal to its exclusive control. The conditions for using the channel were to be the same for citizens of the United States and Great Britain, as well as for citizens of other states that had accepted similar obligations.

In accordance with the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the United States entered into an agreement with Nicaragua in 1867, by virtue of which they received the right of free transit with the obligation to protect the neutrality of the canal and the sovereignty of Nicaragua. A condition identical in content was included in the trade agreement between Nicaragua and Great Britain back in 1860.

On the other hand, the provisions contained in the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty were reproduced in agreements concluded with Nicaragua by Spain in 1850, France in 1859 and Italy in 1868.

Subsequently, however, US diplomatic activity turned towards the Panama version of the canal construction. In 1869 and 1870, the United States, in addition to the agreement of 1846, attempted to conclude an agreement with Colombia, and distinctive feature The draft agreement of 1870 was that the canal was to remain permanently open to military vessels only of the United States and Colombia, and military vessels of states at war with them were not to be allowed into the canal. In 1878, the Colombian government granted a concession for the construction of the Panama Canal to a society organized in France, headed by Lesseps, who carried out the construction of the Suez Canal.

The law granting the concession declared the neutrality of the canal, the free passage of merchant ships of all flags even in time of war, the free passage of military vessels of the United States and Colombia at all times, with the closure, however, of the canal for military vessels of other states during the war, unless the right of passage military courts of the State concerned in time of war shall not be provided for in the agreement of such State with Colombia. Considering that the United States may therefore encounter the influence of non-American states in the Panama Canal, the US State Department in 1881 instructed its ambassadors in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna to declare to the respective governments that the neutrality of the Panama Canal was guaranteed by the United States and that an attempt to establish additional guarantee Such neutrality through an agreement between European states will be considered by the United States as an unfriendly action towards them. The consequence of this diplomatic speech by the United States was a reminder from Great Britain of the provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. The diplomatic correspondence that began then continued until 1883, but did not lead to any results.

The United States returned to the issue of the aforementioned treaty again in 1899, after the successful end of the war with Spain, during which the opinion in the United States that the constructed canal should be under the exclusive control of the United States became even stronger. The original Anglo-American agreement, concluded in 1900 and containing a reference - as a basis - to the provisions of the 1888 convention regarding the Suez Canal, did not receive approval from the US Senate, and in connection with this, the Gay-Paunsfota Treaty was concluded in 1901 (see) , approved by both the US and UK. By virtue of this treaty, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was canceled and the rights of the United States to the construction of the canal, its management, operation and security throughout its entire length were recognized; on the other hand, the agreement stipulated that the canal should be open to merchant and military vessels of all flags, without specifying, however, that the obligation to keep the canal open covered both peacetime and wartime. Long before the conclusion of the above-mentioned agreement, namely in 1888, the bankruptcy of the French Panama Canal Society occurred.

The new company, which took upon itself the continuation of work on the construction of the canal, entered into negotiations with the United States regarding the transfer of its concession and the construction carried out, and in 1902 a corresponding agreement was concluded, which provided for the payment of $40 million to the company by the United States. After this, the United States had to settle its relations with Colombia, but the latter in August 1903 refused to ratify the agreement signed by its representatives with representatives of the United States at the beginning of the same year (see.<<Гей-Эррана договор>>).

The consequence of this refusal was the so-called. The “Panamanian Revolution”, as a result of which Panama, with the direct support of the United States, separated from Colombia and declared itself an independent republic, which immediately received recognition from the United States (see Buno-Varilla). On November 18, 1903, the Gay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty (q.v.) was concluded between the United States and the Republic of Panama, by virtue of which the latter ceded the right to construct and operate the canal to the United States in perpetuity. Further, to protect the canal, the United States received the right to use its armed forces, as well as build defensive fortifications.

The possibility of unhindered use of the Panama Canal for the shipping of friendly countries was reaffirmed by the US President in 1904; On 24. VIII 1912, a law was issued on the opening and operation of the canal and on the management of the canal zone, and on 9. VII 1914, as a further development of the 1912 law, regulations on navigation along the canal and the approaches to it were issued. The very opening of the canal took place on August 16, 1914. The boundaries of the canal zone were clarified by an agreement between the United States and Panama dated September 2, 1914.

During the First World War, before the entry of the United States into it, by virtue of a proclamation issued by the United States on November 13, 1914, unimpeded passage of trade and military ships of warring states through the canal was allowed; after the United States entered the war, on the basis of a proclamation dated 23. V 1917, enemy merchant and military ships were deprived of the right to use the canal. The security of the Panama Canal was further provided for in the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the United States and Panama in 1936, and in the notes annexed to it. The outbreak of the Second World War gave rise to the proclamation of 5. IX 1939 regarding the observance of neutrality in the Panama Canal Zone and a number of resolutions (of 5. IX 1939, of 25. III 1940 and of 9. VII 1940) related to this. With regard to the passage of ships captured as prizes through the canal, the passage through the canal at the end of 1939 of the German ship Düsseldorf, which had a British prize crew on board, deserves mention. The passage of this ship was complicated by the fact that the Germans made an attempt to land a naval agent who was on the ship in the Panama Canal zone under the pretext of his illness. However, after a simulation of illness was established in a hospital in Panama, the imaginary patient was handed over, despite German protests, to the British vice-consul and transported to Bermuda on a Canadian destroyer.

The terms of the agreement on the transfer of rights to the Panama Canal actually gave the US government the right to interfere in the internal affairs of Panama and control foreign policy. And this opportunity was used more than once. For example, throughout the 20th century, protests broke out from time to time in Panama against the American presence, discrimination against Panamanian workers, and the plight of the people. But the Panamanian authorities were not particularly worried about such protests, because such a serious northern neighbor is always nearby, ready to come to the rescue in pacifying the fraternal people. Thus, with the help of the American military, the protests of 1916, 1918, 1921, 1923,1925, 1932, 1942, 1951, 1959, 1964 were suppressed.

From time to time, the 1903 agreement was revised, the rent was changed, and Panama was given some rights to manage the canal. But this was all a drop in the ocean. After all, the US received colossal benefits from using the Panama Canal: in addition to the fact that the profits reached $100 million a year, the most important thing was the fact that US troops were stationed in Central America, who could move freely around the country and control the entire region .

By the way, the 1903 agreement was signed with many violations, was not translated into Spanish, and there is not a single signature of a Panamanian citizen under it. Of course, under pressure from the Panamanian side, the terms of the treaty were periodically revised, but such revisions did not change anything in essence of the treaty - the Americans could continue to feel like masters on Panamanian soil, which, in turn, caused the just indignation of the Panamanians. For example, an American worker in Panama was paid an order of magnitude higher than for the same amount of work performed by a Panamanian, Panamanians were not allowed to trade in the Canal Zone, and American citizens were exempt from taxation.

The history of Latin America cannot be called smooth and calm, which fully applies to Panama. Representatives of oligarchic circles came to power several times, and many of them raised the issue of ownership of the channel. But most of them cared only about their own income, since the channel brought good profits. Only a few saw the canal not as a source of their income, but as a basis for progressive changes in Panama. Among such leaders, the first place belongs to Omar Torrijos. It was on the initiative of Torrijos that negotiations were held with the United States, which resulted in the signing of, one might say, an epochal treaty. Omar Torrijos managed to reach an agreement with then-US President Jimmy Carter. According to the agreement concluded in September 1977, 65% of the shares of the Panama Canal became the property of Panama, while the remaining 35% remained under the control of the United States until 2000.

During the Transitional Period, it was decided to create a commission to manage the canal, consisting of 5 Americans and 4 Panamanians. According to the agreement, Panama's sphere of activity in managing the Panama Canal was supposed to constantly increase every year.

Thus, thanks to the efforts of General Omar Torrijos, Panama had a real opportunity to gain control of the canal. As for Omar Torrijos himself, it must be said that after this he became the national hero of Panama.

On his initiative, reforms were carried out in education (universal primary education was introduced), a new labor code was adopted, in accordance with which the right to a minimum wage, strikes, and normal working conditions was established. Some enterprises were also nationalized and new factories were built. The reforms also affected medical care: measures were taken to combat dangerous infectious diseases, including malaria. Torrijos was also the first to establish rapprochement with the indigenous people of Latin America - the Indians. Changes were made to the electoral system, according to which the people could elect not a political “elite”, but a representative from the region, which was more democratic.

Torrijos's reforms and his openly negative attitude towards the United States could not leave the United States indifferent. Periodically, the United States made attempts to overthrow Omar Torrijos. On one of Torrijos’ trips to Mexico in 1969, a coup was prepared by the military junta with the support of the CIA, and the general was informed that his return to his homeland was undesirable, but Torrijos still risked returning. He was helped by the Panamanian people, who staged a demonstration of one hundred thousand people led by Major Manuel Antonio Noriega and simply drove out the putschists.

Thus, the 1969 coup did not take place, but subsequently attempts to overthrow a dangerous enemy continued. On August 31, 1981, General Omar Torrijos dies in a plane crash. The plane in which he was flying crashed near the Coclecito airfield. Official version- “a tragic accident,” although the conclusions of the commission that investigated the circumstances of the crash confirmed that the plane was in good working order, the weather was without a single cloud, and the pilot did not report any problems throughout the flight. By the way, during the summer of 1981, three Latin American leaders died under unclear circumstances.

By the way, being the President of Panama after Torrijos, Antonio Noriega also interfered with the Americans. But now they did not stand on ceremony. They simply brought in troops, arrested the president, took him to the United States, accused him of corruption and drug trafficking, and put him in prison, and replaced him with their own puppet and resumed control over Panama.

3. Transfer of the canal to Panama

According to the agreement, already in 1979, the United States transferred a total of 78 different facilities in the canal zone to Panama, including the strategically important port of Cristobal, a railway, fuel depots, and fire stations.

According to the agreement, the channel receives the status of a state enterprise. It will be managed by the Panama Canal Authority (Autoridad del Canal de Panama) - a council of 11 members headed by the Minister for Canal Affairs, personally appointed by the President of the Republic. The channel's budget will be independent of the Panama state budget. The channel remains outside of politics, outside of anyone's interests, free for passage by the courts of any nation. Channel personnel are prohibited from participating in strikes or any other actions that could interfere with its functioning.

Interests of the parties. One can, of course, talk for a long time about who and what is losing or gaining from the economic point of view of the transition of the canal to the ownership of Panama. Some experts (mostly American), for example, argue that the Panamanians will not be able to effectively manage the canal because they “don’t know how.” Therefore, sooner or later they will have to resort to the help of “strangers”. True, the Panamanians have already partially resolved this issue: back in 1997, the Panamanian authorities entered into an agreement with the Hong Kong company Hutchinson Whampoa Ltd on transferring to the company the rights to manage the two main seaports of the Panama Canal - Balboa, located on the Pacific Ocean near the capital of Panama, and Cristobal, located on the Atlantic coast. The ports and their communications were leased to the company for 25 years with the right to extend the contract for the same period. The agreement was a matter of "particular concern" for Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott, who sent a letter to US Defense Secretary William Cohen last fall about the growing Chinese presence in the canal zone. In the letter, Lott, in particular, emphasized that the US government "is allowing a scenario to develop in which vital US security interests cannot be protected without confrontation with the Chinese Communists."

The economic interests of the United States are slightly affected by the loss of the canal. Technically, the channel is seriously outdated, and significant reconstruction is required to increase its capacity. In particular, in order for vessels of greater capacity to pass through the canal, it is necessary to build another series of locks. And this, according to economists, could cost up to 8 billion dollars. According to experts, at least half of the engineering structures require repairs. Moreover, the channel, through which only 4% of world trade is carried out, is gradually losing its importance as an important trade route in the global trade system with the increasing efficiency of rail and air transportation. The canal is gradually turning into a “local” Latin American waterway.

But from a strategic point of view, the United States is losing a rather important bridgehead of its military presence on the Latin American continent. Throughout the entire century - starting in 1903 - the Americans kept a solid military contingent in the Panama Canal zone (from 10 to 65 thousand people), who were engaged not only in maintaining and protecting this commercial waterway. The zone was turned into practically a center for training the American military for service in the specific conditions of the Latin American continent (for example, at the Fort Sherman military base there was the only center for training the military to fight in the jungle, through which up to 100 thousand people passed) , intelligence center and counterinsurgency operations center. Washington never stood on ceremony with its southern neighbors, shamelessly interfering in their “domestic” affairs. Let us recall, for example, the dispersal of demonstrators in 1964 who advocated the return of the canal to Panama and the closure of American military bases (then 24 people died and more than 600 were injured) or the history of the overthrow of General Manuel Antonio Noriega, when in 1989 a 20,000-strong American landing force landed in Panama. Marines. By the way, it was then that the Armed Forces of Panama were disbanded, and now only 1.5 thousand police officers provide security for the canal.

It is precisely concerns about the ability of Panamanian authorities to properly protect the canal (according to recent polls, more than 70% of Panamanians do not believe that Panama on our own capable of protecting the canal and the country’s borders in general) and the danger of Panama turning into a transit point for Colombian drug traffickers and explains Washington’s desire to maintain, at least in a greatly reduced form, its military presence in the canal zone.

The long-term American military presence in the Panama Canal Zone made it possible to control the flow of drug smuggling from South America to North America. From here, up to 15 thousand sorties of US Air Force reconnaissance aircraft were carried out annually to monitor drug smuggling in the region. A couple of years ago, Washington made a proposal to open, after the transfer of the canal to Panama, in the territory military base Howard, where the headquarters of the US Southern Command was located, international center to combat drug smuggling. Which would mean, in particular, the deployment of 2 thousand American soldiers there. But lengthy negotiations with the Panamanian authorities ultimately failed. Panama was not satisfied with the fact that Washington insisted on including in the agreement on the creation of the center a provision on the right to use the infrastructure of the Howard Base not only for the purpose of combating the illegal drug trade and a provision on providing military units that were to be stationed on the territory of the military base with the right to unhindered and free movement within the territory of Panama from customs and police inspections. So now, with the departure from the zone, the Americans are forced to reorient themselves to neighboring countries. Washington has already concluded agreements on a joint “anti-drug” fight with Ecuador, Aruba, and Curacao. These countries pledged to make their airports available for special raids and refueling of US military aircraft.

The Panamanian authorities have completely different views on the liberated territories and military bases. So far, the Panamanian government does not intend to conclude any agreements providing for a permanent American military presence in the country. Moreover, back in mid-October, Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso (by the way, the widow of the legendary Panamanian President Arnulfo Arias, who became head of state three times and was overthrown by the military three times) directly stated that Panama’s military relations with the United States would end on December 31. "We no longer need military bases on our territory. Moreover, we do not need centers for combating drug smuggling."

The Panamanian authorities intend to actively develop the canal zone, and not only from the point of view of trade and transport. The government hopes to attract investment and tourists to the canal zone and turn the country into a Latin American Singapore.

The military airfield, located between the three bases of Howard, Kobbe and Farfan, also has good economic potential. The airfield's runway is 2,485 meters - the longest in all of Latin America. On the territory of these three bases (more than 5 thousand hectares) there are more than 600 buildings for various purposes, 303.5 thousand square meters of other structures, including more than a thousand residential premises. In general, the infrastructure that the Americans leave to the Panamanians is very rich - each base is a whole fairly comfortable military town with living quarters, a school, a hospital, a theater, a fire station, tennis courts, golf courses, a swimming pool, a hotel, etc.

Nevertheless, the United States made sure ahead of time to have a legislative mechanism that would allow them to exercise control over the channel. We are talking about two documents - an agreement on the complete neutrality of the Panama Canal, which is an integral part of the Carter-Torrijos agreement, and the so-called. De Concini's amendment (named after the senator who introduced it), added later to the treaty. Both documents practically give Washington the right to send its troops into Panama at any time without the consent of the Panamanian authorities. "Under the Treaty of Permanent Neutrality and the Operation of the Panama Canal, Panama and the United States are responsible for keeping the Panama Canal open and safe for the vessels of all nations. This means that these countries, in accordance with their constitutional norms, will protect the canal from any threat to the regime of neutrality and will have the right to act against any aggression or threat directed against the regime of peaceful transit of ships through the canal."

According to the agreement on the complete neutrality of the canal, the United States receives the right of military intervention “in the event of a threat to the interoceanic transport route.” Formally, the agreement is aimed at preventing possible attacks on the canal by drug traffickers and paramilitary groups in neighboring Colombia. In fact, the United States, by transferring the canal to the Panamanian authorities, practically only relieves itself of the financial and technical burden of its maintenance, while retaining strategic control over the canal.

Let us recall that once - in 1989 - the United States already took advantage of this “right”, practically invading the territory of Panama and overthrowing General Noriega. And nothing will stop them the next time, when the political situation in Panama or Central America seems to Washington “threatening the national interests of the United States,” from bringing into the Panama Canal zone a contingent of thousands of American soldiers who are yearning for the real cause.

The 20-year Transition Period expired on December 31, 1999. The entire territory of the Panama Canal passed to the Panamanians, and the United States gave up the last bases and facilities intended to service the canal. By the way, at the time of the transfer of the channel, US profits from his channel were about 100 million dollars per year, while the rent was 1.93 million per year.

Immediately in early 2000, Panama announced a tender to operate the canal. The tender was won by the Chinese company Hutchison Whampoa, which actually began to manage the canal, but under the control of the Panamanian authorities.

In 2004, Martin Torrijos, son of Omar Tarrijos, became President of Panama. Martin Torrijos won the 2004 presidential election with the slogan: “Yes, it is possible!”: poverty, unemployment, corruption can be defeated. He is a member of the Revolutionary Democratic Party.

The idea of ​​modernizing and expanding the canal arose quite a long time ago, which would allow ships with a displacement of up to 170 thousand tons, a length of up to 440 meters and a draft of up to 18 meters to pass through the canal, while at the moment ships with a displacement of up to 65 thousand tons, a length of no more than 294 meters and a draft of up to 12 meters.

To this end, at the initiative of Martin Torrijos, a popular referendum was held in 2006, where the people of Panama had to decide whether they wanted the canal to be expanded. 79% of the country's citizens supported the expansion of the canal and approved the initiative of President Torrijos.

Since 2006, work has been underway to expand the canal. In particular, the most important question remains the question cash, which are needed to carry out such grandiose work, and a lot of them are needed - 5.2 billion dollars. However, the leadership of Panama took such a risk and launched a campaign to accumulate funds. First of all, China is most interested in expanding and improving the channel, which needs not only sales markets, but also fast and convenient delivery of raw materials, in particular oil. China is ready to cooperate with Panama and provide assistance to it in implementing the canal expansion project. China's weight throughout the world turns out to be quite serious, and Panama in its person can find a serious partner in economic relations, which, accordingly, will entail cooperation in politics.

Also, despite the crisis, in October 2008, a series of negotiations were held with global creditors to raise money to expand the Panama Canal. For example, among the creditors ready to allocate funds are the Japan Bank for International Cooperation, which will allocate $800 million, the European Investment Bank - $500 million, and the Inter-American Development Bank (Inter -American Development Bank - $400 million, Andean Development Corporation and International Finance Corporation - $300 million each. These are clear indications that at the moment there is a clear trend towards to strengthen Panama’s position, primarily through active cooperation with the countries of Latin America and Western Europe, China, and Japan.

The ceremony of handing over the channel was attended by heads of state and famous politicians from Latin America, the USA and Europe.

That is why many projects of competing channels were born, for example in the territory of Nicaragua or Colombia.

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Let us remember the beginning of this story: what exist and

The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the most important milestones in navigation. Commissioned in 1920 (the first ship passed through it in 1914, but due to a landslide in the fall of that year, official traffic was opened only six years later), the canal shortened the distance between the ports of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans several times - previously, To get from one ocean to another, ships had to go around South America all the way around Cape Horn. Today, the Panama Canal is one of the world's main shipping routes, through which about 18 thousand ships pass annually (the current throughput Canal - 48 vessels per day), which constitutes a significant part of the world's cargo turnover. The history of the Panama Canal dates back to the 16th century, when the Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama and reach the Pacific coast - so it was discovered that the territory of modern Panama is only a narrow strip of land between the oceans. In 1539, the Spanish king sent an exploration expedition to study the possibility of building a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama, but the expedition reported to the king that this idea was not feasible.
The first real attempt to build the Panama Canal was made by the French in 1879 under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, a diplomat and director of the Suez Canal project, which had opened shortly before, in 1869. But building the Panama Canal was a much more difficult task. In 1889, the French project went bankrupt - the challenge posed by the Panamanian jungle with its tropical rains, impenetrable swamps and at the same time rocky soils, floods and, worst of all, deadly epidemics of malaria, yellow fever, plague, typhus and other diseases was too difficult , which claimed the lives of about 20 thousand people in the first campaign. Then the States took up the construction of the Panama Canal. The United States was interested in shortening the waterway from the ports of California to its Atlantic coast, and most importantly, the Panama Canal had enormous military significance - it made it possible to almost instantly transfer a fleet from one ocean basin to another, which significantly increased the power and global influence of the United States. In 1903, the United States bought the Panama project from the French, ensured Panama's independence from Colombia, which did not want to provide the Americans with the canal zone for essentially indefinite use, and then signed a formal agreement with the new Panamanian government (which was again represented by the Frenchman Philippe-Jean Bunod -Varilla, who was one of the main participants in the bankrupt first project). The treaty gave the United States a 5-kilometer zone on each side of the canal for indefinite use (that is, essentially forever) and the exclusive right to occupy territories outside this zone as part of any measures to protect the waterway. Thus, the declaration of the canal as neutral and the guarantee of free passage through the canal for military and merchant vessels of all nations, both in time of peace and in war, was destroyed by the American stipulation that these regulations would not apply to such measures as the United States considered necessary to take for the defense of Panama and maintaining order in the channel. In fact, in a war in which the United States participated, its military fortifications would inevitably deprive the other belligerent of the opportunity to use the canal on an equal footing. John Frank Stevens became the chief engineer of the Panama Canal. Taking into account the mistakes of the French, the Americans first of all took enormous measures to disinfect the construction area and prevent tropical diseases. The project was also changed - according to the French project, the Panama Canal, like the Suez Canal, was supposed to be built at the same level with the oceans, without locks. This required a colossal amount of excavation work on the watershed section of the route. American engineers changed the project and proposed a lock canal with three stages of locks on each side and a watershed section at an altitude of 26 meters above ocean level. The Gatun Reservoir was created on the watershed, into which ships from the Atlantic side were raised in the Gatun locks, and from the Pacific side - in the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks. The Panama Canal opened in 1920 and remained under US control for many years. There were dozens of American military bases in the canal zone, and about 50 thousand military and civilian specialists worked. Over time, dissatisfaction regarding this began to grow more and more in Panama, and in 1977 an agreement was signed on the gradual transfer of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama. In reality, this process took more than two decades, and the canal zone finally came into the possession of Panama on December 31, 1999. The length of the canal is 81.6 kilometers, of which 65.2 kilometers are actually on land and another 16.4 approach kilometers along the bottom of the Panama and Limon bays to deep water. Vessels large enough to pass through the Panama Canal are called Panamax vessels. This standard was the main one for seagoing vessels until the beginning of the 1990s, when active construction of Post-Panamax class vessels (mainly tankers) began, whose dimensions are larger than the dimensions of the Panama Canal locks. Today, the cost of one trip through the Panama Canal depends on the type and size of the vessel and ranges from $800 for a small yacht to $500,000 for the largest vessels. There were also funny cases - for example, in 1928, the famous American traveler Richard Halliburton, who sailed through the canal from one ocean to another, was charged 36 cents. The Panama Canal today is not only one of the world's most important transport connections, but also the main tourist attraction of Panama. The Panama Canal now operates a large tourist center at the Miraflores locks, where from several special observation platforms you can see the locks and the ships passing through them, while the loudspeaker tells about each ship, its route and what it is carrying. There are other tours - by bus along the canal, by rail, walks on small boats; Some standard Caribbean cruises take cruise ships through the Gatun Locks up the Atlantic side of the canal to the watershed and then back out into the Caribbean Sea (and tourists can sail the rest of the Panama Canal on excursions). But by far the best, most unique and enthusiastic way to see the Panama Canal is to transit it entirely on a cruise ship, cross it from the Atlantic to the Pacific (or vice versa) and continue the cruise further in a completely different ocean basin. Absolutely everyone, even the most experienced travelers, prepare for the passage of the Panama Canal in a completely special way. The actual passage of the Panama Canal takes on average about 9 hours, not counting the waiting time for ships in huge sea roads on each side. The cruise ship, naturally, is strictly on schedule and heads into the canal immediately, out of turn. The Zaandam approaches the Panama Canal Zone at approximately 5 am. The entrance to the spacious approach area of ​​the Panama Canal from the Caribbean Sea is marked by powerful lighthouses and protected by many kilometers of dams. At the entrance to the canal in the roadstead, dozens of ships of all sizes and colors stand waiting for their turn, brightly lit in the night. And on the shore of the bay there is the city and port of Colon, with a huge container terminal. The same container terminal is located at the other entrance to the canal - thus, container ships of the “Post-Panamax” class (that is, larger than the locks of the Panama Canal) are unloaded at these entrance ports, containers with cargo are transported along the railway running along the canal, and then on the other side they board new ships and continue the route. The railway between ports is also used to partially unload large container ships passing through the canal to reduce their draft. It’s five in the morning, it’s just starting to get light, but most tourists are already on their feet: entering the Panama Canal is one of the central events of the cruise! We enter the approaching water area, from the board in the pre-dawn twilight the lights of the Colon port are visible.


Having taken on board a group of pilots, we head to the entrance - from the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal begins with a three-stage staircase of Gatun locks, in which ships rise from the level of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed section of the canal.
To the left of the existing two-line locks, starting in 2007, an additional third line of Panama Canal locks has been built.
They will be significantly larger than the existing ones and will increase the maximum size and draft of ships that can sail through the canal. If the current locks have dimensions of 304.8 x 33.5 and a depth of 12.8 meters, then the new ones are 427 x 55 x 18.3, respectively. In addition to the construction of the second stage of locks, the fairway at the Culebra watershed is currently being expanded and deepened, so that two-way traffic of vessels along the entire length of the canal becomes possible (currently, traffic and locking on the Panama Canal is essentially one-way - first a group of ships goes in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and the ships diverge on wider lake sections of the route). After the completion of this large-scale reconstruction, the capacity of the Panama Canal will double. Old and new locks of the Panama Canal


Longitudinal profile of the Panama Canal
Route plan
At 6-30 am we approach the Gatun locks. The movement of ships along one of the most important transport links in the world goes on continuously, from the bow of the Zaandam we can clearly see four ships ascending the lock stairs in front of us, two in each line.
On the bank of the canal there are huge gates for the second stage of locks under construction - they were made in Italy and were delivered to the canal recently, at the end of August 2013.
We approach the first gateway. Clumsy sea vessels are moved from chamber to chamber with the help of special locomotives, to which mooring lines are attached and tensioned. Locomotives with stretched mooring lines attached to them accompany the vessel on four sides (at the bow and stern on each side) - thus, a perfectly clear entry of huge sea vessels into a very small chamber compared to their size is carried out. Mooring lines from the locomotives are supplied to the ship using a boat.
The mooring lines are secured - let's go!
We enter the first lock chamber - ships rise from the Caribbean Sea to the watershed area in the three-stage Gatun locks. The total lifting height is 26 meters. Accordingly, just under nine meters per step. But from aboard a huge sea liner, this nine-meter drop is not perceived as significant.
There is incredible excitement on the decks!
Since the United States finally withdrew from the Panama Canal in 1999, the unique structure has been maintained entirely independently by Panama. The channel is in good hands!
The locomotive, starting the ship from the stern on the starboard side, deftly climbs up. Now the gates will close and the locking will begin.
Having risen in the first, we move to the second chamber.
One of the Panama Canal webcams is installed in the Gatun locks, which broadcast images on the Internet in real time. At this moment, many of my friends and colleagues are watching us walk through the locks. This is what the Zaandam slowly rising along the Atlantic slope of the Panama Canal looks like from the side.
Having completed the locking in the third chamber, “Zaandam” rises to the level of the watershed section of the canal. From the stern there is a stunning view of the lock staircase going down and the ships ascending it behind us. Breathtaking! Far below lies the expanse of the Caribbean Sea. And for us - to the Pacific Ocean. Goodbye Atlantic!


Having risen through the Gatun locks, the ship enters the lake of the same name. Lake Gatun is actually a large reservoir formed on the watershed by a large dam on the Chagres River, which is clearly visible on the right side.
The canal is fed with water from Lake Gatun. Such canals, in which the reservoir feeding them with water is located in a watershed area, from which water is distributed by gravity to both slopes, are called canals with natural feeding (gravity). In our country these are the Volga-Baltic and White Sea-Baltic canals. On Lake Gatun there is another raid of ships waiting their turn at the locks and waiting for the end of locking of those who come towards them. When the second stage of the Panama Canal is put into operation, traffic along the entire length of the route will become completely two-way.
The route along the Gatun Reservoir is approximately half the entire length of the Panama Canal. We admire the surrounding landscapes of the equatorial belt from the deck.


The fairway is not wide and quite winding. The waterway is marked with special buoys.
At the Gatun Reservoir there is a divergence of ships going in opposite directions. A caravan of ships is coming towards us, having passed the locks of the Pacific slope in the morning and now heading towards the Atlantic slope of the canal. Large tankers, bulk carriers, container ships pass very close by...




The Zaandam is also viewed with interest from the bridges of oncoming cargo ships. The passage of cruise ships through the Panama Canal is a fairly rare event.
On the left side you can see the confluence of the Chagres River, which is crossed by a bridge. Gatun Reservoir ends here. Next, the canal route passes through the artificially dug Culebra cut.
A railway runs along the Panama Canal route, along which containers are transported from the Atlantic port to the Pacific port and vice versa. Sometimes tourist trains also run along it.
We go through the Culebra notch - the narrowest part of the Panama Canal. In some sections, ships navigate the canal accompanied by tugboats. There is a whole special flotilla of them working on the Panama Canal.
In the place where the Culebra notch crosses a high mountain range, the banks rise steeply in steps, and the cable-stayed Centennial Bridge is already visible in the distance. It was built in 2004 and became the second permanent bridge over the canal. By the way, bridges over the Panama Canal connect two continents - let's not forget that the Panama Canal not only connects two oceans, but also separates the two Americas. The motto of Panama and the Panama Canal, “A Land Divided – A World United”, I think, is clear without additional translation. Now we have North America on the starboard side, and South America on the left side.
Rising with stone ledges and reinforced with powerful anchors, the slopes of the excavation in this place are reminiscent of some fantastic Mayan pyramids. In principle, in terms of its grandeur, the Panama Canal is a structure quite comparable to them. The volume of rock excavated during the creation of the Culebra excavation is equal in volume to 63 Cheops pyramids in Egypt.
The bridge is left behind.
Soon after the bridge, the watershed section of the canal ends and the descent to the Pacific Ocean begins, which ships also overcome in three 9-meter steps. But the Pacific slope is a little flatter - if on the Atlantic slope all three steps are located in a row in the Gatun locks, then here there are two groups of locks - Pedro Miguel (1 step) and Miraflores (2 steps), separated by a small intermediate pool. So, we go into the Pedro Miguel locks.
About the same view opens from the captain's bridge. From this angle you can clearly see how narrow the lock chamber is compared to the colossal dimensions of ocean-going ships. Even with locomotives guiding the vessel, the navigators here require pinpoint precision. All ships navigate the canal with a group of local pilots.

Locomotives move the Emerald Express tanker into the parallel chamber.
At this time on its decks.
Having finished sluicing at the Pedro Miguel Locks, the Zaandam emerges into the small Lake Miraflores, like Lake Gatun, formed by the dam. Here we will have to wait a little - along a parallel thread of locks a huge floating crane is being pulled towards us, and for some time the ships go only along one thread.
We go out into the water area and stop. We'll have to wait half an hour until the ship in front of us locks into two chambers, and it's our turn.
The ships following us are also waiting - a small traffic jam!
On the left you can see the dam on the river that formed the Miraflores Reservoir.
Finally, the lock chambers are cleared and ready to receive our ship. This arrow shows the skippers which of the two lines they need to go to.
We go into the left chamber, and towards us from the right chamber the tug finally slowly brings out a huge floating crane, the “culprit” of the traffic jam. Now the locking process will go much faster again.
Near the upper left chamber is the Panama Canal Visitor Center. There are several large open areas, from where anyone can look at the ships passing through the locks.
There is also a webcam from which our ship can be seen as the largest one on the canal. Separating yourself from the crowd, here you can pose gorgeously for your friends and say hello to the Motherland that doesn’t sleep at midnight! At this moment, from the outside we look like this.
Having said goodbye to our friends, we disappear from the field of view of the video cameras. Now see you in two weeks at home, but for now the Zaandam is heading to the last chamber of the Miraflores lock, after which it will leave the Panama Canal, enter the Pacific Ocean and continue its cruise along the coast of South America. On observation platforms The Miraflores tourist center is crowded. The passage of a cruise ship through the canal is a significant event and a unique opportunity for many land tourists to capture rare footage.
Excitement!!!
The gates of the last chamber of the Miraflores locks are closing - the final locking, and we will again find ourselves at ocean level.
Before the construction of two permanent bridges on the Panama Canal, this drawbridge operated, through which communication between the two Americas was carried out for 50 years.
Locomotive driver at work.
Locking is completed - let's go out!
The Pacific Slope locks of the Panama Canal remain behind.
The construction of the second stage of locks is also actively underway on the Pacific slope - the outline of the future new water staircase is already visible here.
We are heading towards the exit.
We leave the Pacific container port on the left.
The exit to the Pacific Ocean is unusually beautiful - we pass under the openwork arch of the Bridge of Americas, opened in 1962.
On the left is a magnificent panorama of the city of Panama, the capital of the state of the same name, surrounded by green hills.

The pilot boat picks up the pilots accompanying the ship on the Panama Canal, and, giving a good-natured siren as a farewell, returns back.
There are also many ships at the entrance to the Panama Canal on the Pacific side.

A fresh wind blows in your face, emerging into the open space “Zaandam” is accompanied by a flock of birds...
We are in the Pacific Ocean!