Memory controller built into the processor. Moving the memory controller directly into modern processors. No diversity - no problem

Not long ago, processors of the AMD64 family appeared on the market, which are based on the new revision E core. This core is manufactured using a technological process with 90 nm production standards, as well as using SOI (Silicon on Insulator) and DSL (Dual Stress Liner) technologies ) found application in several lines of processors from AMD. The areas of application of the revision E kernel are very different. It can be found in both the Athlon 64 and Athlon 64 FX processors, where it is codenamed Venice and San Diego; in dual-core CPUs of the Athlon 64 X2 family, where it is called Toledo or Manchester; as well as in Sempron processors, where this core is called Palermo.

By developing and bringing new cores to the stage of mass production, AMD strives not only to increase the maximum clock speeds of its processors, but also to improve their characteristics. The revision E kernel became the next step on this path: with its implementation, Athlon 64 processors and their derivatives acquired new properties. The most noticeable improvement was the appearance in AMD processors of support for SSE3 instructions, which were available in competitor products since the launch of CPUs with a 90 nm Prescott core. In addition, the integrated memory controller has also undergone traditional fine-tuning.

Tests have shown that support for SSE3 commands gives very little. Today there are very few applications that effectively use these instructions, and the SSE3 set itself can hardly claim to be a full-fledged subset of instructions.

Therefore, this time we decided to pay more attention to the changes made to the integrated memory controller of processors with the revision E kernel. It should be noted that in earlier cores of its CPUs, AMD not only increased the performance of the memory controller, but also expanded its compatibility with various combinations of different memory modules. The revision D kernel, known primarily for the Athlon 64 processors codenamed Winchester, was a kind of milestone in this regard. Firstly, the performance of the memory controller has slightly increased in Winchester processors compared to their predecessors. Secondly, processors with the Winchester core are now capable of working with DDR400 SDRAM modules installed in all four DIMM slots on the motherboard. It would seem that the optimum has been achieved, however, AMD engineers thought otherwise. AMD processors with revision E kernel have an even more advanced memory controller.

Where were the engineers' efforts directed this time? Naturally, certain optimizations were again made to increase the performance of the memory controller. Thus, tests of processors with the Venice core demonstrated their slight superiority over their counterparts with the Winchester core. In addition, compatibility has improved again. AMD processors with revision E kernel are now able to function normally when several memory modules of different organization and size are installed in the system, which undoubtedly greatly simplifies the selection of components for further upgrades. Also, processors based on the new core can now work without problems with four double-sided DDR400 SDRAM modules. Another interesting property of processors with the revision E kernel was the appearance of new dividers that set the memory frequency. Thanks to this, new CPUs from AMD now without any reservations support DDR SDRAM operating at frequencies exceeding 400 MHz.

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Works with four double-sided DDR400 SDRAM modules

The integrated memory controller of Athlon 64 processors is a rather capricious unit. Various unpleasant aspects associated with its functioning began to become clear since the advent of processors with support for two memory channels. It turned out that due to the fairly high electrical load that the memory modules impose on the controller, the Athlon 64 has certain problems when working with four DIMM modules. So, when installing four memory modules into an Athlon 64-based system, the CPU may reset their frequency, increase timings, or not work at all.

However, to be fair, it should be noted that the server analogue of the Athlon 64, Opteron, is free of such problems due to the use of more expensive register modules. However, the use of such modules in desktop systems is unjustified, and therefore users must put up with some restrictions that arise when installing more than two DIMMs into the system.

However, the problems described are gradually being solved. While the older Athlon 64 processors, based on 130 nm cores, could not handle four dual-sided DDR400 SDRAM modules at 400 MHz at all and reduced their frequency to 333 MHz, modern processors with 90 nm cores offer users several best options. Already in the revision D kernel, known to us by the code name Winchester, it became possible to work with four double-sided DDR400 SDRAM modules, provided the Command Rate timing was set to 2T.

Memory

Memory is a device for storing information. It consists of random access and permanent storage devices. The random access memory device is called RAM, read only memory - ROM.

RAM - volatile memory

RAM is designed for recording, reading and storing programs (system and application), initial data, intermediate and final results. Direct access to memory elements. Another name is RAM(Random Access Memory) random access memory. All memory cells are combined into groups of 8 bits (1 byte) and each such group has an address at which it can be accessed. RAM is used for temporary storage of data and programs. When you turn off the computer, the information in RAM is erased. RAM is volatile memory. Modern computers typically have between 512 MB and 4 GB of memory. Modern application programs often require 128–256, or even 512 MB of memory for their execution, otherwise the program simply will not be able to work.

RAM can be built on dynamic chips (Dinamic Random Access Memory - DRAM) or static (Static Random Access Memory - SRAM) type. Static memory has significantly higher performance, but is much more expensive than dynamic memory. For register memory (MPC and cache memory) SRAM is used, and the main memory RAM is built on the basis of DRAM chips.

ROM is non-volatile memory.

In English-language literature, ROM is called Read Only Memory, ROM(read-only memory). Information in ROM is written at the factory of the memory chip manufacturer, and its value cannot be changed in the future. ROM stores information that is independent of the operating system.

The ROM contains:

• 
  Program for controlling the operation of the processor itself
• 
  Programs for controlling the display, keyboard, printer, external memory
• 
  Programs for starting and stopping the computer (BIOS – Base Input / Outout Sysytem)
• 
  Device testing programs that check the correct operation of its units every time you turn on the computer (POST -Power On SelfTest)
• 
  Information about where on the disk it is located operating system.

CMOS - non-volatile memory

CMOS RAM is non-volatile computer memory. This write-multiple write chip has a high cell density (each cell is 1 byte in size) and low power consumption - it has plenty of power batteries computer. Received its name from the technology of creation based on complementary metal-oxide semiconductors ( complementary metal-oxide semiconductor- CMOS). CMOS RAM is a database for storing PC configuration information. The Setup BIOS computer startup program is used to set and store configuration settings in CMOS RAM. Each time the system boots, the parameters stored in the CMOS RAM chip are read to determine its configuration. Moreover, since some computer startup parameters can be changed, all these variations are stored in CMOS. The BIOS SETUP installation program, when writing, saves its system information in it, which it later reads itself (when the PC boots). Despite the obvious connection between the BIOS and CMOS RAM, they are completely different components.

Key words of this lecture

controllers, chipset, ports, USB, COM, LPT, BIOS POST, CMOS, Boot, I/O devices,

(controller- regulator, control device) - a device for controlling various computer devices.

Chipset(chipset)

A set of chips designed to work together to perform a set of functions. Thus, in computers, the chipset located on the motherboard acts as a connecting component that ensures the joint functioning of the memory subsystems, central processing unit (CPU), input-output and others. Motherboard (motherboard, MB, also used name mainboard- main board; slang. Mother, mother, motherboard) is a complex multilayer printed circuit board on which the main components of a personal computer are installed (central processor, RAM controller and RAM itself, boot ROM, controllers for basic input-output interfaces), a chipset, connectors (slots) for connecting additional controllers using USB buses , PCI and PCI-Express.

North Bridge(Northbridge; on selected Intel chipsets, Memory Controller Hub, MCH) - chipset system controller on the motherboard x86 platform, to which the following are connected as part of the organization of interaction:

via Front Side Bus - microprocessor,

via the memory controller bus - RAM,

via the graphics controller bus - video adapter,

connected via internal bus south bridge.

South Bridge(Southbridge; functional controller; I/O Controller Hub, ICH). Usually this one chip on the motherboard, which through the Northbridge connects “slow” (compared to the CPU-RAM connection) interactions with the central processor (for example, bus connectors for connecting peripheral devices).

AGP(from the English Accelerated Graphics Port, accelerated graphics port) - developed in 1997 by Intel, a specialized 32-bit system bus for a video card.

PCI(English: Peripheral component interconnect, literally - interconnection of peripheral components) - an input/output bus for connecting peripheral devices to the computer motherboard.

Ultra DMA(Direct memory access, Direct memory access). Different versions of ATA are known under the synonyms IDE, EIDE, UDMA, ATAPI; ATA (English: Advanced Technology Attachment) is a parallel interface for connecting storage devices (hard drives and optical drives) to a computer. In the 1990s it was standard on the IBM PC platform; is currently being replaced by its successor - SATA and with its advent it received the name PATA (Parallel ATA).

USB(English Universal Serial Bus - “universal serial bus”, pronounced “yu-es-bee” or “oo-es-be”) - a serial data transfer interface for medium- and low-speed peripheral devices in computing. To connect peripheral devices to the USB bus, a four-wire cable is used, with two wires (twisted pair) in a differential connection used to receive and transmit data, and two wires to power the peripheral device. Thanks to the built-in power lines, USB allows you to connect peripheral devices without its own power source (the maximum current consumed by the device via the USB bus power lines should not exceed 500 mA).

LPT-port (standard printer device “LPT1” Line Printer Terminal or Line PrinTer) in operating systems of the MS-DOS family. IEEE 1284 (printer port, parallel port)

COM-port (“com port” Communication port, Serial port, serial port, serial port) is a bidirectional serial interface designed for exchanging bit information. This port is called serial because information is transmitted through it one bit at a time, bit by bit (unlike a parallel port).

PS/2- connector used to connect a keyboard and mouse. It first appeared in 1987 on IBM PS/2 computers and subsequently gained recognition from other manufacturers and became widespread in personal computers and workgroup servers. a series of personal computers from IBM based on Intel 80286 and Intel 80386 series processors, produced since April 1987. /2 – computer version.

Hello Giktimes! Upgrading RAM is the most basic type of PC upgrade, as long as you're lucky and don't stumble upon one of the many hardware incompatibilities. We tell you in what cases a set of cool RAM will not “start” on an old PC, why on some platforms you can increase RAM only with the help of “selected” modules, and we warn about other characteristic quirks of hardware.

We know about RAM that there is never too much of it, and that, depending on the age of the computer, you have to choose from very old DDR, old DDR2, mature DDR3 and modern DDR4. At this point, the guide at the level of “well, the main thing is to buy it, and then it will somehow work, or exchange it, if anything” could be completed - it’s time to consider the pleasant and not so specific in the selection of hardware. That is, cases when:

• It should work, but for some reason it doesn't
• the upgrade is not cost-effective or is it better to do it in a multi-step manner
• I want to carry out the modernization with “little blood” in accordance with the potential of the PC

Check where the controller is located

Previously, controllers were located outside the processor, but now, as it happens, they work from inside

Against this background, alternatives from the AMD camp of the same time look less colorful: all chipsets for Socket 754, which housed the Athlon 64, representatives of the K8 microarchitecture, support DDR memory, the same type of memory was supported by processors for Socket 939 (Athlon 64 and the first dual-core Athlon 64 X2). Moreover, in the case of AMD chips, the memory controller was built into the processor - now this approach would not surprise anyone, but Intel purposefully kept the controller in the chipset, precisely in order to combine processors for the same socket with new types of RAM.

For this reason, subsequent AMD chips for socket AM2/AM2+ with a RAM controller under the processor cover worked only with DDR2, while Intel with its “long-lived” Socket 775 extended the pleasure with DDR to the very tomatoes of DDR3! In more modern platforms, both processor manufacturers have switched to an on-chip CPU controller, and such tricks with supporting assorted RAM are a thing of the past.

When is it cheaper to change a chipset than to shell out for old memory?

Because the same amount of DDR2 memory on the secondary market will be at least 50% more expensive than DDR3 memory of comparable capacity. Not to mention that DDR3 has not yet been removed from the assembly line, so it can be purchased in new condition, in an inexpensive kit.
And with new chipsets, it becomes possible to expand RAM to values ​​that are relevant today. For example, if you compare prices in Russian retail, then 8 gigabytes (2x 4 Gb) of DDR2 memory with a frequency of 800 MHz will cost you about 10 thousand rubles, and the same amount of DDR3 memory with a frequency of 1600 MHz (Kingston Value RAM KVR16N11/8, for example) - 3800-4000 rubles. Taking into account the sale and purchase of a motherboard for an old PC, the idea looks reasonable.

The realities of upgrading computers with native DDR and DDR2 support have long been known to everyone:

• memory modules with different timings and frequencies most often they manage to work together, and “alignment” occurs either according to the SPD profile in a less productive module, or (what’s worse) the motherboard chooses a standard profile for working with RAM. As a rule, with the minimum allowable clock frequency.
• the number of modules, ideally, should be equal to the number of channels. Two memory sticks with a capacity of 1 GB each in an old PC will work faster than four modules with a capacity of 512 MB. Fewer modules means lower load on the controller, higher efficiency.

• modules of equal volume work more efficiently in dual-channel mode. In other words, 1 GB + 1 GB will be better than 1 GB + 512 MB + 512 MB.
• evaluate platform performance before purchasing memory. Because some chipsets do not reveal the potential of even their “antediluvian” type of RAM. For example, the Intel 945 Express platform is equipped with a dual-channel DDR2 controller supporting frequencies up to 667 MHz. This means that the platform will recognize the DDR2 PC6400 modules you purchased, but the modules will be limited in performance and will work only as PC2-5300, “identical to natural ones.”

And, it seems, this list of nuances is enough to make you want to “drag” an LGA775-based computer to a chipset with DDR3 support. However, you will still laugh, but upgrading an old platform with new RAM also has its own nuances.

In debut platforms with DDR3 support (Intel x4x and x5x chipsets and AMD analogues of the same time), controllers can only work with old-style modules. An absurd situation? Yes, but the fact remains a fact.

The fact is that old systems do not speak the “language of communication” with modules that are equipped with high-density memory chips. At the everyday level, this means that this module, whose 4 gigabytes are “spread” across eight chips on the front side of the printed circuit board, will not be able to work in an old PC. And the old module, in which the same volume is implemented on 16 chips (8 on each side) with a similar volume and frequency, will be operational.

Such compatibility problems are typical, for example, for the desktop Intel G41 Express (the same one that carries a considerable share of the surviving Core 2 Duo or Core 2 Quad) or the mobile Intel HM55 (laptops based on the first generation Intel Core based on the Nehalem microarchitecture).

Sometimes motherboard/laptop manufacturers release new BIOS versions in order to teach older platforms to work with new RAM revisions, but most often there is no talk of any long-term support for old equipment. And, unfortunately, there is no talk of any special series of memory for owners of “outdated, but not quite” PCs - memory production has moved forward and turning it back is very expensive.

In order not to bother with such concepts as “memory chip density,” at the household level, owners of old PCs are advised to look for Double-sided DIMM, dual-sided memory modules that are more likely to be compatible with debut DDR3-based platforms. In the Kingston model line, a suitable option would be HyperX Blu KHX1333C9D3B1K2/4G - 4 GB DDR3 module for desktops with sixteen memory modules on board. It's not so easy to find on sale, but if you want 16 GB on an old PC, know how to spin.

And yes, the “best of the archaic” chipsets, such as the Intel P35 Express, for example, are also content with DDR3 support at 1333 instead of the 1600 MHz typical for modern budget platforms.

HyperX Blu KHX1333C9D3B1K2 is one of the few ways to get 16 GB of RAM in older PCs

No diversity - no problem

This is roughly how new computers based on DDR3 and competing memory types compared in the recent past

The principles for selecting memory in the case of DDR3-based platforms are as follows:

• for FM1, FM2 and FM2+, if we are talking about an APU with powerful integrated graphics, you can and should choose the most powerful RAM. Even old chips based on FM1 are able to cope with DDR3 at a frequency of 1866 MHz, and chips based on the Kaveri microarchitecture and its “restyling” Godavari in some cases squeeze out all the juice even from extremely overclocked DDR3 at a frequency of 2544 MHz! And these are not “corn” megahertz, but really useful in real work scenarios. Therefore, overclocking memory is simply necessary for such computers.

It’s worth starting, for example, with modules HyperX HX318C10F - they already work “in the base” at 1866 MHz and CL10, and when overclocked they will come in handy for clock-sensitive AMD hybrid processors.

AMD APUs desperately need high-frequency memory

• "antique" Intel processors on LGA1156 and its server brother LGA1366 platforms capable of riding high-frequency DDR3 only if the multiplier is correctly selected. Intel itself guarantees stable operation exclusively within the “up to 1333 MHz” range. By the way, do not forget that in addition to supporting ECC registered memory, the LGA1366 and LGA2011 server platforms offer three- and four-channel DDR3 controllers. And they remain, perhaps, the only candidates for upgrading RAM to 64 GB, because non-registered memory modules with a capacity of 16 GB are almost never found in nature. But in LGA2011, memory overclocking has become easily possible up to 2400 MHz.
• Almost all processors based on microarchitectures Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge (LGA1155) support RAM with frequencies up to 1333 MHz. It is no longer possible to increase the clock generator frequency and thus achieve “easy” overclocking in this generation of Intel Core. But models with an unlocked multiplier and the “correct” motherboard can go far beyond the notorious 1333 MHz, so for Z-chipsets and processors with the K suffix it makes sense to spend money on modules HyperX Fury HX318C10F - the standard 1866 MHz is “driveable” almost to the maximum values ​​​​for Bridge processors. It won't seem enough!
• LGA1150, a carrier of chips based on Haswell and Broadwell microarchitectures, became the last of Intel’s “civilian” platforms with DDR3 support, but the methods of interaction with RAM have remained almost unchanged since the days of Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge. Unless support for mass DDR3 models with a frequency of 1600 MHz has finally come to fruition. If we talk about overclocking, then the theoretical maximum for processors with unlocked multipliers on overclocking motherboards is 2933 MHz! The maximum is the maximum, but with support for XMP profiles in modern DDR3 modules, achieving high frequencies on aging memory types is no longer difficult.

DDR4 is the fastest, most basic memory to upgrade and purchase

DDR4 is still very young, but in order to unlock the potential of four-channel controllers on the Intel LGA 2011-v3 platform, overclocker memory is already needed

With the choice of memory for supernova platforms, everything is extremely simple - the frequency of mass-produced DDR4 modules starts at 2133 MHz (they are also achievable on DDR3, but “in a jump”), and the volume starts at 4 GB. But buying a “starter” DDR4 configuration today is as short-sighted as being content with DDR3 with a frequency of 800 MHz at the dawn of its appearance.

The memory controller built into processors based on the LGA1151 platform is dual-channel, which means that you need to fit into a couple of modules, the capacity of which is enough for modern games. Today this volume is 16 GB (no, we’re not kidding - with 8 GB of RAM in 2017 you won’t be able to “deny yourself anything”), and as for the clock frequency, DDR4-2400 memory has become the right mainstream.

In server/extreme processors for the LGA 2011-v3 platform, the memory controller is already four-channel, and of all types of RAM, only DDR4-2133 is de jure supported, but overclocking memory based on the Intel X99 chipset with Intel Core i7 Extreme is not easy, but very easy . Well, a computer for maximalists needs memory for maximalists - for example, “the toughest” HyperX Predator DDR4 HX432C16PB3K2 with a clock frequency of 3200 MHz. According to the “go for a walk” principle, the LGA 2011-v3 platform must be equipped with all four modules - only in this case will the four-channel controller be able to realize the full speed potential of the memory subsystem.

In order not to cram the rules and exceptions

In this case, Kingston offers online configurator. With its help, you can select guaranteed compatible and efficient RAM for desktops, workstations, nettops, ultrabooks, servers, tablets and other devices.
There is a reason to check the compatibility of the PC hardware with the memory you are considering purchasing, so as not to return to the store and explain to consultants that “the memory is functional, but my computer needs DDR3-1600, which is not quite the usual DDR3-1600.”

Don't leave old people to their fate!

You can light up at any age

Because outdated PCs from our overclocking-enthusiast bell towers can still do a good job for less ambitious users or retrain as a home server/media center, and we won’t be performing yet another song to the “immortal” Sandy Bridge, which celebrated its sixth anniversary and is still good. I wish you high performance and fair winds in upgrading your PC!

Fast RAM is good, but fast RAM at a discount is even better! Therefore, do not miss the opportunity to purchase any of the HyperX Savage DDR4 and HyperX Predator DDR4 memory kits with a 10% discount using a promotional code before March 8 DDR4FEB in Yulmart. There is no such thing as too much memory, and even more so with powerful and cool memory for new PC platforms!

For more product information Kingston And HyperX please visit the company's official website. HyperX will help you choose your kit

The memory controller is now an integral part of the processor itself. The integrated memory controller has been used in AMD processors for more than six years (before the advent of the Sandy Bridge architecture), so those who were already interested in this issue had time to accumulate a sufficient amount of information. However, for Intel processors, which occupy a much larger market share (and, consequently, for the majority of users), the change in the nature of the memory system operation became relevant only with the release of truly mass-produced processors from the company with an integrated memory controller.

Moving the memory controller directly into modern processors has a significant impact on the overall performance of computer systems. The main factor here is the disappearance of the “intermediary” between the processor and memory in the form of the “north bridge”. Processor performance no longer depends on the chipset used and, as a rule, on the motherboard in general (that is, the latter simply turns into a backplane).

The next generation of RAM, DDR4 SDRAM, brings significant performance improvements to server, desktop and mobile platforms. But achieving new performance milestones requires radical changes in the topology of the memory subsystem. The effective frequency of DDR4 SDRAM modules will be from 2133 to 4266 MHz. Promising memory modules are not only faster, but also more economical than their predecessors. They use a supply voltage reduced to 1.1-1.2 V, and for energy-efficient memory the standard voltage is 1.05 V. DRAM chip manufacturers had to resort to the most advanced manufacturing technologies when making DDR4 SDRAM chips.

A massive transition to the use of DDR4 SDRAM was planned for 2015, but it must be borne in mind that the extremely high speeds of the new generation memory required changes to the usual structure of the entire memory subsystem. The fact is that DDR4 SDRAM controllers can only handle a single module in each channel. This means that the parallel connection of memory modules in each channel will be replaced by a clearly defined point-to-point topology (each installed DDR4 stick will use different channels). To ensure high frequencies, the DDR4 specification only supports one module per memory controller. This means that manufacturers needed to increase the density of memory chips and create more advanced modules. At the same time, timings continued to increase, although access times continued to decrease.

Samsung Electronics has mastered the production of multi-tier 512-Mbit DRAM chips using TSV technology. It is this technology that the company plans to use for the release of DDR4. Thus, it is planned to achieve the release of relatively inexpensive DDR4 memory chips with very high capacity.

Another well-known and already proven method is the use of the so-called “unloading memory” technique - LR-DIMM (Load-Reduce DIMM). The essence of the idea is that the LR-DIMM memory module includes a special chip (or several chips) that buffers all bus signals and allows you to increase the amount of memory supported by the system. True, we should not forget about the only, perhaps, but no less significant drawback of LR-DIMMs: buffering inevitably leads to an additional increase in latency, which for DDR4 memory, by definition, will already be rather large. For the server and high-end computing segment, where a very large amount of memory is in demand, a completely different way out of the situation is proposed. It assumes the use of high-speed switching with special multi-input switch chips.

Intel and Micron have collaborated to create a new type of storage system thatone thousand times faster than the most advanced NAND Flash memory. The new type of memory, called 3D XPoint, boasts read and write speeds up to a thousand times faster than conventional NAND memory, while also boasting high levels of durability and density. CNET news agency reports that the new memory is ten times denser than NAND chips and allows more data to be stored in the same physical area while consuming less power. Intel and Micron say their new type of memory can be used as both system and volatile memory, meaning, in other words, it can be used as a replacement for both RAM and SSDs. Currently, computers can communicate with the new type of memory through the PCI Express interface, but Intel says that this type of connection will not be able to unlock the full speed potential of the new memory, so to maximize the efficiency of XPoint memory, a new motherboard architecture will have to be developed.

Thanks to the new 3DXpoint technology (cross-point), the memory cell changes resistance to distinguish between zero and one. Because the Optane memory cell is transistor-free, Optane memory has 10 times the storage density of NAND Flash. Access to an individual cell is provided by a combination of specific voltages on intersecting conductor lines. The abbreviation 3D was introduced because the cells in memory are arranged in several layers.

Already in 2017, the technology was widely used and will be used both in analogues of flash cards and in RAM modules. Thanks to the new technology, computer games will receive the most powerful development, because locations and maps that are complex in terms of memory capacity will be loaded instantly. Intel claims a 1000-fold superiority of the new type of memory compared to the usual flash cards and hard drives. Devices under the Optane brand will be produced by Micron using a 20nm process technology. First of all, 2.5-inch SSD solid-state drives will be released, but SSD drives with other standard sizes will also be released, in addition the company will release Optane DDR4 RAM modules for Intel server platforms.