What is processor clock speed and what does it affect? What is processor clock speed
* Always current issues, what you should pay attention to when choosing a processor, so as not to make a mistake.
Our goal in this article is to describe all the factors affecting processor performance and other operational characteristics.
It's probably no secret that the processor is the main computing unit of a computer. You could even say – the most important part of the computer.
It is he who processes almost all processes and tasks that occur in the computer.
Be it watching videos, music, Internet surfing, writing and reading in memory, processing 3D and video, games. And much more.
Therefore, to choose C central P processor, you should treat it very carefully. It may turn out that you decide to install a powerful video card and a processor that does not correspond to its level. In this case, the processor will not reveal the potential of the video card, which will slow down its operation. The processor will be fully loaded and literally boiling, and the video card will wait its turn, working at 60-70% of its capabilities.
That is why, when choosing a balanced computer, Not costs neglect the processor in favor of a powerful video card. The processor power must be enough to unlock the video card's potential, otherwise it's just a waste of money.
Intel vs. AMD
*catch up forever
Corporation Intel, has enormous human resources and almost inexhaustible finances. Many innovations in the semiconductor industry and new technologies come from this company. Processors and developments Intel, on average by 1-1,5 years ahead of the engineers' achievements AMD. But as you know, for the opportunity to have the most modern technologies- you have to pay.
Processor pricing policy Intel, is based both on number of cores, amount of cache, but also on "freshness" of architecture, performance per clockwatt,chip process technology. The meaning of cache memory, the “subtleties of the technical process” and other important characteristics of the processor will be discussed below. For the possession of such technologies as well as a free frequency multiplier, you will also have to pay an additional amount.
Company AMD, unlike the company Intel, strives for the availability of its processors for the end consumer and for a competent pricing policy.
One could even say that AMD– « People's stamp" In its price tags you will find what you need at a very attractive price. Usually a year after the appearance new technology at the company Intel, an analogue of technology appears from AMD. If you don't chase after yourself high performance and pay more attention to the price tag than to availability advanced technologies, then the company's products AMD– just for you.
Pricing policy AMD, is based more on the number of cores and very little on the amount of cache memory and the presence of architectural improvements. In some cases, for the opportunity to have third-level cache memory, you will have to pay a little extra ( Phenom has a 3 level cache memory, Athlon content with only limited, level 2). But sometimes AMD spoils his fans possibility to unlock cheaper processors to more expensive ones. You can unlock the cores or cache memory. Improve Athlon to Phenom. This is possible thanks to the modular architecture and the lack of some cheaper models, AMD simply disables some blocks on the chip of more expensive ones (software).
Cores– remain practically unchanged, only their number differs (true for processors 2006-2011 years). Due to the modularity of its processors, the company does an excellent job of selling rejected chips, which, when some blocks are turned off, become a processor from a less productive line.
The company has been working for many years on completely new architecture under code name Bulldozer, but at the time of release in 2011 year, the new processors showed not the best better performance. AMD I blamed the operating systems for not understanding the architectural features of dual cores and “other multithreading.”
According to company representatives, you should wait for special fixes and patches to experience the full performance of these processors. However, at the beginning 2012 year, company representatives postponed the release of an update to support the architecture Bulldozer for the second half of the year.
Processor frequency, number of cores, multi-threading.
During times Pentium 4 and before him - CPU frequency, was the main processor performance factor when selecting a processor.
This is not surprising, because processor architectures were specially developed to achieve high frequencies, and this was especially reflected in the processor Pentium 4 on architecture NetBurst. High frequency was not effective with the long pipeline that was used in the architecture. Even Athlon XP frequency 2GHz, in terms of productivity was higher than Pentium 4 c 2.4 GHz. So it was pure marketing. After this error, the company Intel realized my mistakes and returned to the side of good I started working not on the frequency component, but on performance per clock. From architecture NetBurst I had to refuse.
What same for us gives multi-core?
Four- nuclear processor with frequency 2.4 GHz, in multi-threaded applications, will theoretically be the approximate equivalent of a single-core processor with a frequency 9.6 GHz or 2-core processor with frequency 4.8 GHz. But that's only theoretically. Practically However, two dual-core processors in a two-socket motherboard will be faster than one 4-core processor at the same operating frequency. Bus speed limitations and memory latency take their toll.
* subject to the same architecture and amount of cache memory
Multi-core makes it possible to perform instructions and calculations in parts. For example, you need to perform three arithmetic operations. The first two are executed on each of the processor cores and the results are added to the cache memory, where the next action can be performed with them by any of the free cores. The system is very flexible, but without proper optimization it may not work. Therefore, optimization for multi-cores is very important for processor architecture in an OS environment.
Applications that "love" and use multithreading: archivers, video players and encoders, antiviruses, defragmenter programs, graphic editors , browsers, Flash.
Also, “lovers” of multithreading include such operating systems as Windows 7 And Windows Vista , as well as many OS kernel based Linux, which work noticeably faster with a multi-core processor.
Most games, sometimes a 2-core processor is quite enough for high frequency. Now, however, everything comes out more games“tailored” for multithreading. Take at least these SandBox games like GTA 4 or Prototype, in which on a 2-core processor with a frequency lower 2.6 GHz– you don’t feel comfortable, the frame rate drops below 30 frames per second. Although in in this case, most likely the reason for such incidents is “weak” optimization of games, lack of time or “indirect” hands of those who transferred games from consoles to PC.
When buying a new processor for gaming, you should now pay attention to processors with 4 or more cores. But still, you should not neglect 2-core processors from the “upper category”. In some games, these processors sometimes feel better than some multi-core ones.
Processor cache memory.
is a dedicated area of the processor chip in which intermediate data between processor cores, RAM and other buses is processed and stored.
It operates at a very high clock frequency (usually at the frequency of the processor itself), has a very high throughput and processor cores work with it directly ( L1).
Because of her shortage, the processor can be idle in time-consuming tasks, waiting for new data to arrive in the cache for processing. Also cache memory serves for records of frequently repeated data, which, if necessary, can be quickly restored without unnecessary calculations, without forcing the processor to waste time on them again.
Performance is also enhanced by the fact that the cache memory is unified, and all cores can equally use data from it. This gives additional features for multithreaded optimization.
This technique is now used for Level 3 cache. For processors Intel there were processors with unified level 2 cache memory ( C2D E 7***,E 8***), thanks to which it appeared this method increase multi-threaded performance.
When overclocking a processor, the cache memory can become a weak point, preventing the processor from being overclocked beyond its maximum operating frequency without errors. However, the plus is that it will run at the same frequency as the overclocked processor.
In general, the larger the cache memory, the faster CPU. In which applications exactly?
All applications that use a lot of floating point data, instructions, and threads make heavy use of the cache memory. Cache memory is very popular archivers, video encoders, antiviruses And graphic editors etc.
Favorable to a large number cache memories are games. Especially strategies, auto-simulators, RPGs, SandBox and all games where there are a lot of small details, particles, geometry elements, information flows and physical effects.
Cache memory plays a very important role in unlocking the potential of systems with 2 or more video cards. After all, some part of the load falls on the interaction of the processor cores, both among themselves and for working with streams of several video chips. It is in this case that the organization of cache memory is important, and a large 3rd level cache memory is very useful.
Cache memory is always equipped with protection against possible errors (ECC), if detected, they are corrected. This is very important, because a small error in the memory cache, when processed, can turn into a gigantic, continuous error that will crash the entire system.
Proprietary technologies.
(hyper-threading, HT)–
the technology was first used in processors Pentium 4, but it didn’t always work correctly and often slowed down the processor more than it speeded it up. The reason was that the pipeline was too long and the branch prediction system was not fully developed. Used by the company Intel, there are no analogues of the technology yet, unless you consider it an analogue? what the company’s engineers implemented AMD in architecture Bulldozer.
The principle of the system is that for each physical core, one two computing threads, instead of one. That is, if you have a 4-core processor with HT (Core i 7), then you have virtual threads 8 .
The performance gain is achieved due to the fact that data can enter the pipeline already in the middle of it, and not necessarily at the beginning. If some processor blocks capable of performing this action are idle, they receive the task for execution. The performance gain is not the same as that of real physical cores, but comparable (~50-75%, depending on the type of application). It is quite rare that in some applications, HT negatively affects for performance. This is due to poor optimization of applications for this technology, the inability to understand that there are “virtual” threads and the lack of limiters for loading threads evenly.
TurboBoost – a very useful technology that increases the operating frequency of the most used processor cores, depending on their load level. It is very useful when the application does not know how to use all 4 cores and loads only one or two, while their operating frequency increases, which partially compensates for performance. The company has an analogue of this technology AMD, is technology Turbo Core.
, 3 dnow! instructions. Designed to speed up the processor in multimedia computing (video, music, 2D/3D graphics, etc.), and also speed up the work of programs such as archivers, programs for working with images and video (with the support of instructions from these programs).
3dnow! – quite old technology AMD, which contains additional instructions for processing multimedia content, in addition to SSE first version.
*Namely the ability to stream processing real numbers single precision.
The presence of new version– is a big plus, the processor begins to perform certain tasks more efficiently with proper software optimization. Processors AMD have similar names, but slightly different.
* Example - SSE 4.1(Intel) - SSE 4A(AMD).
In addition, these instruction sets are not identical. These are analogues with slight differences.
Cool'n'Quiet, SpeedStep CoolCore Enchanted Half State(C1E) AndT. d.
These technologies, at low loads, reduce the processor frequency by reducing the multiplier and core voltage, disabling part of the cache, etc. This allows the processor to heat up much less, consume less energy, and make less noise. If power is needed, the processor will return to normal state in a split second. On standard settings Bios They are almost always turned on; if desired, they can be disabled to reduce possible “freezes” when switching in 3D games.
Some of these technologies control the rotation speed of fans in the system. For example, if the processor does not need increased heat dissipation and is not loaded, the processor fan speed is reduced ( AMD Cool'n'Quiet, Intel Speed Step).
Intel Virtualization Technology And AMD Virtualization.
These hardware technologies allow you to use special programs run several operating systems at once, without any significant loss in performance. Also, it is used for proper operation servers, because often more than one OS is installed on them.
Execute Disable Bit AndNo eXecute Bit – technology designed to protect your computer from virus attacks And software errors, which can cause the system to crash through buffer overflow.
Intel 64 , AMD 64 , EM 64 T – this technology allows the processor to work both in an OS with a 32-bit architecture and in an OS with a 64-bit architecture. System 64 bit– from the point of view of benefits, for the average user it differs in that more than 3.25GB can be used in this system RAM. On 32-bit systems, use b O A larger amount of RAM is not possible due to the limited amount of addressable memory*.
Most applications with 32-bit architecture can be run on a system with a 64-bit OS.
* What can you do if back in 1985, no one could even think about such gigantic, by the standards of that time, volumes of RAM.
Additionally.
A few words about.
This point is worth paying close attention to. The thinner the technical process, the less energy the processor consumes and, as a result, the less it heats up. And among other things, it has a higher safety margin for overclocking.
The more refined the technical process, the more you can “wrap” into a chip (and not only) and increase the capabilities of the processor. Heat dissipation and power consumption are also reduced proportionally, due to lower current losses and a reduction in core area. You can notice a tendency that with each new generation of the same architecture on a new technological process, energy consumption also increases, but this is not the case. It’s just that manufacturers are moving towards even higher performance and are stepping beyond the heat dissipation line of the previous generation of processors due to an increase in the number of transistors, which is not proportional to the reduction in the technical process.
Built into the processor.
If you don't need a built-in video core, then you shouldn't buy a processor with it. You will only get worse heat dissipation, extra heating (not always), worse overclocking potential (not always), and overpaid money.
In addition, those cores that are built into the processor are only suitable for loading the OS, surfing the Internet and watching videos (and not of any quality).
Market trends are still changing and the opportunity to buy a powerful processor from Intel Without a video core, it drops out less and less. The policy of forced imposition of the built-in video core appeared with processors Intel under code name Sandy Bridge , the main innovation of which was the built-in core on the same technical process. The video core is located together with processor on one chip, and not as simple as in previous generations of processors Intel. For those who do not use it, there are disadvantages in the form of some overpayment for the processor, the displacement of the heating source relative to the center of the heat distribution cover. However, there are also advantages. Disabled video core, can be used for very fast video encoding technology Quick Sync coupled with special software that supports this technology. In the future, Intel promises to expand the horizons of using the built-in video core for parallel computing.
Sockets for processors. Platform lifespan.
Intel has harsh policies for its platforms. The lifespan of each (the start and end dates of processor sales for it) usually does not exceed 1.5 - 2 years. In addition, the company has several parallel developing platforms.
Company AMD, has the opposite policy of compatibility. On her platform on AM 3, all future generation processors that support DDR3. Even when the platform reaches AM 3+ and later, either new processors for AM 3, or new processors will be compatible with old ones motherboards, and you can make a painless upgrade for your wallet by changing only the processor (without changing the motherboard, RAM, etc.) and flashing the motherboard. The only nuances of incompatibility may arise when changing the type, since a different memory controller built into the processor will be required. So compatibility is limited and not supported by all motherboards. But in general, for the budget-conscious user or those who are not used to completely changing the platform every 2 years, the choice of the processor manufacturer is clear - this AMD.
CPU cooling.
IN standard, comes with processor BOX-a new cooler that will simply cope with its task. It is a piece of aluminum with a not very high dispersion area. Efficient coolers with heat pipes and plates attached to them are designed for highly efficient heat dissipation. If you do not want to hear extra noise from the fan, then you should purchase an alternative, more efficient cooler with heat pipes, or a system liquid cooling closed or not closed type. Such cooling systems will additionally provide the ability to overclock the processor.
Conclusion.
All important aspects affecting the performance and performance of the processor have been considered. Let's repeat what you should pay attention to:
- Select manufacturer
- Processor architecture
- Technical process
- CPU frequency
- Number of processor cores
- Processor cache size and type
- Technology and instruction support
- High-quality cooling
We hope this material will help you understand and decide on choosing a processor that meets your expectations.
Statement:
The higher the processor clock speed, the higher its performance.
The speed of processors has always been compared based on their leading and most understandable characteristic - clock frequency. The fashion for this was introduced in 1984 by IBM PC marketers, who argued that Intel processor The 8088 in their computer is almost five times faster than the MOS Technology 6502 in clock speed
from the Apple II - which means it's almost five times faster. Intel and Microsoft followed the same logic in the 90s, claiming that Pentium was more productive than PowerPC from Apple computers just because he has it higher clock frequency. After AMD joined the race in the late 90s, the company had to introduce special markings that compared their processors with Intel processors. Most consumers were confident that the clock speed - main characteristic, and Intel, which was betting on its growth, only supported them in this belief.
JOHN SPOONER
journalist
“After the release of Pentium III processors operating at frequencies up to 667 MHz, AMD may lose its leadership. Submitted
Athlon processors are running this month
with a maximum frequency of 650 MHz. But Intel's leadership won't last long. According to AMD representatives, they will release a processor with a frequency of 700 MHz by the end of the year.”
Why this is not true:
The time it takes to complete operations is more important than the clock speed.
It is correct to compare the clock frequency only
processors have the same model range with the same architecture. Although the frequency of the Intel 8088 was almost five times higher than that of the MOS Technology 6502, in fact, the same operation could take more clock cycles from the Intel 8088, which is why the advantage in frequency was leveled out. So it was
in the future: first Apple, and then AMD tried to expose the “myth of megahertz.” In 2006, they were finally joined by Intel, which reached the clock speed limit on the architecture it was then using in desktop processors, and changed the paradigm.
Today the number of operations that the processor performs
in one clock cycle, clock speed has never been more important. Case
is that the higher the frequency, the higher the heat generation,
and therefore the creators mobile processors focus
for optimization, not dry numbers. The myth, however, goes nowhere
did not disappear, and even evolved: for example, many began to believe that the speed of a processor is proportional to the number of cores in it. And if you name the average person two processors with different clock frequencies, he will still
by inertia it will choose the one with more megahertz.
Of all technical characteristics The most known processor speed among users is the clock speed. But few non-specialists fully understand what it is. More detailed information this will help you understand the work better computing systems. Especially when using multi-core processors that have certain operating features that are not known to everyone, but which should be taken into account when operating a computer.
For a long time, the main efforts of developers were aimed specifically at increasing the clock frequency. Only in lately there has been a trend towards development and improvement computer architecture, increasing the amount of cache memory, the number of processor cores. However, the processor clock speed does not go unnoticed.
What is this parameter - processor clock speed?
Let’s try to figure out what “processor clock speed” is. This value characterizes the number of calculations that the processor can perform in one second. Consequently, a processor with a higher clock frequency also has higher performance, i.e. able to complete within a certain period of time more operations.
Majority modern processors have a clock frequency from 1 to 4 GHz. This value is defined as the product of the base frequency and a certain coefficient. In particular the processor Intel Core i7 920 has its own clock frequency of 2660 Hz, which is obtained due to the base bus frequency of 133 MHz and a factor of 20. Some manufacturers produce processors that can be overclocked to greater performance. For example, Black Edition AMD has a K-series line Intel. It is worth noting that, despite the importance of this characteristic, it is not decisive when choosing a computer. Clock speed only partially affects processor performance.
Single-core processors have practically sunk into oblivion and are rarely used in modern computing devices. This is caused by the development of the IT industry, the progress of which never ceases to amaze. Even among experts, you can sometimes come across a misconception about how to calculate the clock speed of a processor with two or more cores. A common misconception is that the clock speed must be multiplied by the number of cores. For example, a 4-core processor with a clock frequency of 3 GHz will have an integrated frequency of 12 GHz, i.e. 4x3=12. But this is not true.
Let's explain this at simple example . Let's take a pedestrian walking at a speed of 4 km/h - this is a single-core processor with a frequency of 4 GHz. A 4-core processor with a clock speed of 4 GHz is already 4 pedestrians walking at the same speed of 4 km/h. Indeed, in this case, the speed of pedestrians is not summed up, and we cannot say that they move at a speed of 16 km/h. We are simply talking about four pedestrians walking together at a speed of 4 km/h each. The same analogy can be applied to multi-core processor. Thus, we can say that a 4-core processor with a clock speed of 4 GHz simply has four cores, each of which has the same frequency - 4 GHz. A simple and logical conclusion follows from this: the number of processor cores affects only its performance, and does not increase the total clock frequency of the computing device.
CPU – central processing unit, or central processing device. It is an integrated circuit that executes machine instructions. Externally, a modern CPU looks like a small block about 4-5 cm in size with pin contacts on the bottom. Although it is customary to call this block integrated circuit is located inside this case and is a silicon crystal onto which electronic components are applied using lithography.
The top of the CPU case serves to dissipate the heat generated by the billions of transistors. On the bottom there are contacts that are needed to connect the chip to motherboard using a socket - a specific connector. The CPU is the most powerful part of the computer.
Clock frequency as an important parameter of processor operation, and what it affects
The performance of a processor is usually measured by its clock speed. This is the number of operations or clock cycles that the CPU can perform in a second. Essentially, the time it takes the processor to process information. The catch is that different architectures and CPU designs can perform operations in different quantity beats That is, one CPU for a certain task may need one clock cycle, and another - 4. Thus, the first one may turn out to be more efficient with a value of 200 MHz, versus the second with a value of 600 MHz.
That is, the clock frequency, in fact, does not fully determine the performance of the processor, which is usually positioned by many as such. But we are used to evaluating it based on more or less established norms. For example, for modern models The current range in numbers is from 2.5 to 3.7 GHz, and often higher. Naturally, the higher the value, the better. However, this does not mean that there is not a processor on the market with a lower frequency, but which works much more efficiently.
Operating principle of a clock generator
All PC components work with at different speeds. For example, the system bus might be 100 MHz, the CPU might be 2.8 GHz, and the RAM might be 800 MHz. The baseline for the system is set by the clock generator.
Most often in modern computers a programmable generation chip is used, which determines the value for each component separately. The principle of operation of the simplest clock pulse generator is to generate electrical pulses at a certain time interval. The most obvious example of using a generator is electronic watch. By counting ticks, seconds are formed, from which minutes and then hours are formed. We will talk about what Gigahertz, Megahertz, etc. are a little later.
How the speed of a computer and laptop depends on the clock frequency
The processor frequency is responsible for the number of clock cycles that a computer can execute in one second, which in turn reflects performance. However, do not forget that different architectures use different numbers of clock cycles to solve one problem. That is, “measuring by indicators” is relevant within at least one class of processors.
What is affected by the clock speed of a single-core processor in a computer and laptop?
Single-core CPUs are rarely found in nature anymore. But you can use them as an example. One processor core contains at least an arithmetic-logical unit, a set of registers, a couple of cache levels and a coprocessor.
The frequency with which all these components perform their tasks directly affects the overall performance of the CPU. But, again, with a relatively similar architecture and command execution mechanism.
What is affected by the number of cores in a laptop?
The CPU cores do not add up. That is, if 4 cores operate at 2 GHz, this does not mean that their total value is 8 GHz. Because tasks in multi-core architectures are executed in parallel. That is, a certain set of commands is distributed to the cores in parts, and after each execution a common response is generated.
In this way, a certain task can be completed faster. The whole problem is that not everyone software are able to work with several threads simultaneously. That is, until now, most applications, in fact, use only one core. There are, of course, mechanisms at the level operating system, which can parallelize tasks on different cores, for example, one application loads one core, another - the second, etc. But this also requires system resources. But in general, optimized programs and games perform much better on multi-core systems.
How is processor clock speed measured?
The unit of measurement Hertz usually indicates the number of times periodic processes are executed in one second. This is what became ideal solution for the units in which the processor clock speed will be measured. Now the work of all chips began to be measured in Hertz. Well, now it’s GHz. Giga is a prefix indicating that it contains 1000000000 Hertz. Throughout the history of PCs, set-top boxes have changed frequently - KHz, then MHz, and now GHz is the most relevant. In CPU specifications you can also find English abbreviations - MHz or GHz. Such prefixes mean the same as in Cyrillic.
How to find out the processor frequency of your computer
For operating room Windows systems there are several simple ways, both regular and with the help third party programs. The simplest and most obvious is to right-click on the “My Computer” icon and go to its properties. Next to the name of the CPU and its characteristics, its frequency will be indicated.
From third party solutions You can use the small but well-known program CPU-Z. You just need to download, install and run it. In the main window it will show the current clock speed. In addition to this data, it displays a lot of other useful information.
CPU-Z program
Ways to increase productivity
In order to, there are two main ways: increase the multiplier and the system bus frequency. The multiplier is a coefficient showing the ratio of the base processor frequency to the base system bus.
It is factory set and can be either locked or unlocked in the end device. If it is possible to change the multiplier, it means that you can increase the frequency of the processor without making changes to the operation of other components. But in practice, this approach does not provide an effective increase, since the rest simply cannot keep up with the CPU. Changing the system bus indicator will lead to an increase in the values of all components: processor, RAM, north and south bridges. This is the simplest and effective way overclocking your computer.
You can overclock a PC as a whole by increasing the voltage, which will increase the speed of the CPU transistors, and at the same time its frequency. But this method is quite complicated and dangerous for beginners. It is used mainly by people experienced in overclocking and electronics.