• The first integrated circuit appeared in. Large integrated circuits

    ) first proposed the idea of ​​combining many standard electronic components into a monolithic semiconductor crystal. The implementation of these proposals in those years could not take place due to insufficient development of technology.

    At the end of 1958 and in the first half of 1959, a breakthrough took place in the semiconductor industry. Three men representing three private American corporations solved three fundamental problems that were preventing the creation of integrated circuits. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments patented the principle of combination, created the first, imperfect, prototypes of IP and brought them to mass production. Kurt Legovets from Sprague Electric Company invented a method for electrically insulating components formed on a single semiconductor chip (p-n junction insulation). P–n junction isolation)). Robert Noyce from Fairchild Semiconductor invented a method for electrically connecting IC components (aluminum metallization) and proposed an improved version of component insulation based on the latest planar technology of Jean Herni. Jean Hoerni). On September 27, 1960, Jay Last's band Jay Last) created on Fairchild Semiconductor the first working one semiconductor IP based on the ideas of Noyce and Ernie. Texas Instruments, which owned the patent for Kilby's invention, launched a patent war against competitors, which ended in 1966 with a global agreement on cross-licensing technologies.

    Early logic ICs of the mentioned series were literally built from standard components, the sizes and configurations of which were specified by the technological process. Circuit designers who designed logic ICs of a particular family operated with the same standard diodes and transistors. In 1961-1962 the leading developer broke the design paradigm Sylvania Tom Longo, for the first time using different ICs in one configurations of transistors depending on their functions in the circuit. At the end of 1962 Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) developed by Longo - historically the first type of integrated logic that managed to gain a foothold in the market for a long time. In analog circuitry, a breakthrough of this level was made in 1964-1965 by the developer of operational amplifiers Fairchild Bob Vidlar.

    The first hybrid thick film in the USSR integrated circuit(series 201 “Trail”) was developed in 1963-65 at the Research Institute of Precision Technology (“Angstrem”), mass production since 1965. Specialists from NIEM (now the Argon Scientific Research Institute) took part in the development.

    The first semiconductor integrated circuit in the USSR was created on the basis of planar technology, developed in early 1960 at NII-35 (then renamed the Pulsar Research Institute) by a team that was later transferred to NIIME (Mikron). The creation of the first domestic silicon integrated circuit was concentrated on the development and production with military acceptance of the TS-100 series of integrated silicon circuits (37 elements - the equivalent of the circuit complexity of a flip-flop, an analogue of the American IC series SN-51 companies Texas Instruments). Prototype samples and production samples of silicon integrated circuits for reproduction were obtained from the USA. The work was carried out at NII-35 (director Trutko) and the Fryazino Semiconductor Plant (director Kolmogorov) under a defense order for use in an autonomous altimeter for a ballistic missile guidance system. The development included six standard integrated silicon planar circuits of the TS-100 series and, with the organization of pilot production, took three years at NII-35 (from 1962 to 1965). It took another two years to develop factory production with military acceptance in Fryazino (1967).

    In parallel, work on the development of an integrated circuit was carried out in the central design bureau at the Voronezh Semiconductor Devices Plant (now -). In 1965, during a visit to the VZPP by the Minister of Electronics Industry A.I. Shokin, the plant was instructed to carry out research work on the creation of a silicon monolithic circuit - R&D “Titan” (Ministry Order No. 92 of August 16, 1965), which was completed ahead of schedule completed by the end of the year. The topic was successfully submitted to the State Commission, and a series of 104 diode-transistor logic microcircuits became the first fixed achievement in the field of solid-state microelectronics, which was reflected in the MEP order No. 403 dated December 30, 1965.

    Design Levels

    Currently (2014), most integrated circuits are designed using specialized CAD systems, which make it possible to automate and significantly speed up production processes, for example, obtaining topological photomasks.

    Classification

    Degree of integration

    Depending on the degree of integration, they are used following titles integrated circuits:

    • small integrated circuit (MIS) - up to 100 elements per chip,
    • medium integrated circuit (SIS) - up to 1000 elements per chip,
    • large integrated circuit (LSI) - up to 10 thousand elements per chip,
    • ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (VLSI) - more than 10 thousand elements in a crystal.

    Previously, now outdated names were also used: ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (ULIS) - from 1-10 million to 1 billion elements in a crystal and, sometimes, giga-large-scale integrated circuit (GBIC) - more than 1 billion elements in a crystal. Currently, in the 2010s, the names “UBIS” and “GBIS” are practically not used, and all microcircuits with more than 10 thousand elements are classified as VLSI.

    Manufacturing technology

    • Semiconductor chip - all elements and inter-element connections are made on one semiconductor crystal (for example, silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, hafnium oxide).
    • Film integrated circuit - all elements and inter-element connections are made in the form of films:
      • thick film integrated circuit;
      • thin film integrated circuit.
    • Hybrid chip (often called microassembly), contains several diodes, transistors and/or other electronic active components. The microassembly may also include unpackaged integrated circuits. Passive microassembly components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are usually manufactured using thin-film or thick-film technologies on a common, usually ceramic, substrate of a hybrid chip. The entire substrate with components is placed in a single sealed housing.
    • Mixed microcircuit - in addition to the semiconductor crystal, it contains thin-film (thick-film) passive elements located on the surface of the crystal.

    Type of processed signal

    Manufacturing technologies

    Types of logic

    The main element of analog microcircuits are transistors (bipolar or field-effect). The difference in transistor manufacturing technology significantly affects the characteristics of microcircuits. Therefore, the manufacturing technology is often indicated in the description of the microcircuit, thereby emphasizing the general characteristics of the properties and capabilities of the microcircuit. IN modern technologies combine bipolar and field-effect transistor technologies to achieve improved IC performance.

    • Microcircuits based on unipolar (field-effect) transistors are the most economical (in terms of current consumption):
      • MOS logic (metal-oxide-semiconductor logic) - microcircuits are formed from field-effect transistors n-MOS or p-MOS type;
      • CMOS logic (complementary MOS logic) - each logical element of the microcircuit consists of a pair of complementary (complementary) field-effect transistors ( n-MOS and p-MOP).
    • Microcircuits based on bipolar transistors:
      • RTL - resistor-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
      • DTL - diode-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
      • TTL - transistor-transistor logic - microcircuits are made of bipolar transistors with multi-emitter transistors at the input;
      • TTLSh - transistor-transistor logic with Schottky diodes - an improved TTL that uses bipolar transistors with the Schottky effect;
      • ECL - emitter coupled logic - on bipolar transistors, the operating mode of which is selected so that they do not enter the saturation mode, which significantly increases performance;
      • IIL - integral injection logic.
    • Microcircuits using both field-effect and bipolar transistors:

    Using the same type of transistors, chips can be created using different methodologies, such as static or dynamic. CMOS and TTL (TTLS) technologies are the most common logic chips. Where it is necessary to save current consumption, CMOS technology is used, where speed is more important and saving on power consumption is not required, TTL technology is used. The weak point of CMOS microcircuits is their vulnerability to static electricity - just touch the output of the microcircuit with your hand, and its integrity is no longer guaranteed. With the development of TTL and CMOS technologies, the parameters of microcircuits are getting closer and, as a result, for example, the 1564 series of microcircuits are made using CMOS technology, and the functionality and placement in the case are similar to TTL technology.

    Microcircuits manufactured using ESL technology are the fastest, but also the most energy-consuming, and were used in production computer technology in cases where the most important parameter was the speed of calculation. In the USSR, the most productive computers of the ES106x type were manufactured on ESL microcircuits. Nowadays this technology is rarely used.

    Process

    In the manufacture of microcircuits, the method of photolithography (projection, contact, etc.) is used, in which the circuit is formed on a substrate (usually silicon) obtained by cutting single crystals of silicon with diamond disks into thin wafers. Due to the small linear dimensions of microcircuit elements, the use of visible light and even near ultraviolet radiation for illumination was abandoned.

    The following processors were fabricated using UV radiation (ArF excimer laser, wavelength 193 nm). On average, industry leaders introduced new technological processes according to the ITRS plan every 2 years, doubling the number of transistors per unit area: 45 nm (2007), 32 nm (2009), 22 nm (2011), production of 14 nm started in 2014 , the development of 10 nm processes is expected around 2018.

    In 2015, there were estimates that the introduction of new technological processes would slow down.

    Quality control

    To control the quality of integrated circuits, so-called test structures are widely used.

    Purpose

    An integrated circuit can have complete, no matter how complex, functionality - up to an entire microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).

    Analog circuits

    • Filters (including piezoelectric effect).
    • Analog multipliers.
    • Analog attenuators and variable amplifiers.
    • Power supply stabilizers: voltage and current stabilizers.
    • Switching power supply control microcircuits.
    • Signal converters.
    • Synchronization circuits.
    • Various sensors (for example, temperature).

    Digital circuits

    • Buffer converters
    • (Micro)processors (including CPUs for computers)
    • Microcircuits and memory modules
    • FPGAs (programmable logic integrated circuits)

    Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:

    • Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the “key” mode, that is, the transistor is either “open” - which corresponds to a high-level signal (1), or “closed” - (0), in the first case at There is no voltage drop in the transistor; in the second, no current flows through it. In both cases the power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which most of the time the transistors are in an intermediate (active) state.
    • High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example, 2.5-5 V) and low (0-0.5 V) level signals. A state error is possible at such a level of interference that a high level is interpreted as a low level and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices It is possible to use special codes to correct errors.
    • The large difference in the state levels of high- and low-level signals (logical “0” and “1”) and a fairly wide range of their permissible changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable dispersion of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminates the need to select components and configure adjustment elements in digital devices.

    Analog-to-digital circuits

    • digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital converters (ADC);
    • transceivers (for example, interface converter  Ethernet);
    • modulators and demodulators;
      • radio modems
      • teletext, VHF radio text decoders
      • Fast Ethernet and optical transceivers
      • Dial-Up modems
      • digital TV receivers
      • optical mouse sensor
    • power supply microcircuits for electronic devices - stabilizers, voltage converters, power switches, etc.;
    • digital attenuators;
    • phase-locked loop (PLL) circuits;
    • generators and frequency restorers of clock synchronization;
    • base matrix crystals (BMC): contains both analog and digital circuits;

    Chip series

    Analog and digital microcircuits are produced in series. A series is a group of microcircuits that have a single design and technological design and are intended for joint use. Microcircuits of the same series, as a rule, have the same power supply voltages and are matched in terms of input and output resistances and signal levels.

    Housings

    Specific names

    The microprocessor forms the core of the computer; additional functions, such as communication with peripherals, were performed using specially designed chipsets (chipset). For the first computers, the number of microcircuits in sets was in the tens and hundreds, in modern systems This is a set of one, two or three microcircuits. IN lately there are trends towards gradual transfer of chipset functions (memory controller, bus controller PCI Express) to the processor.

    INTEGRATED CXEMA (IC, integrated circuit, microcircuit), a functionally complete microelectronic product, which is a set of electrically interconnected elements (transistors, etc.) formed in a semiconductor monocrystalline wafer. ICs are the elemental base of all modern radio-electronic devices, computer devices, information and telecommunication systems.

    Historical information. The IC was invented in 1958 by J. Kilby (Nobel Prize, 2000), who, without dividing the germanium monocrystalline plate into the individual transistors formed in it, connected them together with the thinnest wires, so that the resulting device became a complete radio-electronic circuit. Six months later, the American physicist R. Noyce implemented the so-called planar silicon IC, in which metallized areas (the so-called contact pads) were created on the surface of the silicon wafer for each area of ​​bipolar transistors (emitter, base and collector), and connections between them were made with thin-film conductors. In 1959, industrial production of silicon ICs began in the United States; mass production of IP in the USSR was organized in the mid-1960s in Zelenograd under the leadership of K. A. Valiev.

    IS technology. The structure of a semiconductor IC is shown in the figure. Transistors and other elements are formed in a very thin (up to several microns) surface layer of a silicon wafer; is created from above multi-level system interelement connections. As the number of IS elements increases, the number of levels increases and can reach 10 or more. Inter-element connections must have low electrical resistance. This requirement is satisfied, for example, by copper. Insulating (dielectric) layers (SiO 2, etc.) are placed between the layers of conductors. Up to several hundred ICs are simultaneously formed on one PP wafer, after which the wafer is divided into individual crystals (chips).

    The technological cycle of IC manufacturing includes several hundred operations, the most important of which is photolithography (PL). The transistor contains dozens of parts, the contours of which are formed as a result of PL, which also determines the configuration of the interconnections in each layer and the position of the conducting areas (contacts) between the layers. In the technological cycle, PL is repeated several dozen times. Each PL operation is followed by operations for manufacturing transistor parts, for example, deposition of dielectric, PP and metal thin films, etching, doping by implantation of ions into silicon, etc. Photolithography determines the minimum size (MS) of individual parts. The main PL tool is optical projection stepper-scanners, which are used to perform step-by-step (from chip to chip) image exposure (illumination of the chip, on the surface of which a photosensitive layer is applied - photoresist, through a mask called a photomask) with a reduction (4: 1) in size images in relation to the mask dimensions and with scanning of the light spot within one chip. MR is directly proportional to the wavelength of the radiation source. Initially, PL installations used the g- and i-lines (436 and 365 nm, respectively) of the emission spectrum of a mercury lamp. To replace mercury lamp excimer lasers based on KrF (248 nm) and ArF (193 nm) molecules arrived. Improvement optical system, the use of photoresists with high contrast and sensitivity, as well as special high-resolution technology when designing photomasks and stepper-scanners with a light source with a wavelength of 193 nm, makes it possible to achieve MR equal to 30 nm or less on large chips (with an area of ​​1-4 cm 2) with a capacity of up to 100 plates (diameter 300 mm) per hour. Advancement into the region of smaller (30-10 nm) MRs is possible using soft X-rays or extreme ultraviolet (EUV) with a wavelength of 13.5 nm. Due to the intense absorption of radiation by materials at this wavelength, refractive optics cannot be used. Therefore, EUV steppers use reflective optics on X-ray mirrors. Patterns should also be reflective. EUV lithography is an analogue of optical projection lithography, does not require the creation of new infrastructure and provides high productivity. Thus, by 2000, IC technology crossed the 100 nm (MR) barrier and became nanotechnology.

    Integrated circuit structure: 1-passivating (protective) layer; 2 - top layer of conductor; 3 - dielectric layer; 4 - inter-level connections; 5 - contact pad; 6 - MOS transistors; 7 - silicon wafer (substrate).

    Directions of development. ICs are divided into digital and analog. The main share of digital (logical) microcircuits consists of processor ICs and memory ICs, which can be combined on one crystal (chip), forming a “system-on-chip”. The complexity of an IC is characterized by the degree of integration determined by the number of transistors on the chip. Before 1970, the degree of digital IC integration doubled every 12 months. This pattern (it was first noticed by the American scientist G. Moore in 1965) was called Moore’s law. Moore later refined his law: the complexity of memory circuits doubles every 18 months, and that of processor circuits every 24 months. As the degree of IC integration increased, new terms were introduced: large IC (LSI, with the number of transistors up to 10 thousand), ultra-large IC (VLSI - up to 1 million), ultra-large IC (ULSI - up to 1 billion) and giant LSI (GBIS - more 1 billion).

    There are digital ICs based on bipolar (Bi) and MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) transistors, including in the CMOS configuration (complementary MOS, i.e., complementary r-MOS and w-MOS transistors connected in series in the “source” circuit supply - a point with zero potential"), as well as BiCMOS (on bipolar transistors and CMOS transistors in one chip).

    An increase in the degree of integration is achieved by reducing the size of transistors and increasing the size of the chip; this reduces the switching time of the logical element. As the size decreased, the power consumption and energy (the product of power times the switching time) spent on each switching operation decreased. By 2005, IC performance improved by 4 orders of magnitude and reached fractions of a nanosecond; the number of transistors on one chip was up to 100 million.

    The main share (up to 90%) in global production since 1980 has been made up of digital CMOS ICs. The advantage of such circuits is that in any of the two static states (“0” or “1”) one of the transistors is closed, and the current in the circuit is determined by the current of the transistor in the off state I OFF. This means that if I OFF is negligible, the current from the power supply is consumed only in switching mode, and the power consumption is proportional to the switching frequency and can be estimated by the relation Ρ Σ ≈C Σ ·Ν·f·U 2, where C Σ is the total load capacitance at the output of the logical element, N is the number of logical elements on the chip, f is the switching frequency, U is the supply voltage. Almost all power consumption is released in the form of Joule heat, which must be removed from the crystal. In this case, the power consumed in the switching mode is added to the power consumed in the static mode (determined by the I OFF currents and leakage currents). With a decrease in the size of transistors, static power can become comparable to dynamic power and reach an order of magnitude of 1 kW per 1 cm 2 of crystal. The problem of high energy release forces us to limit maximum frequency switching of high-performance CMOS ICs in the 1-10 GHz range. Therefore, to increase the performance of “systems-on-chip”, additional architectural (so-called multi-core processors) and algorithmic methods.

    At channel lengths of MOS transistors of the order of 10 nm, the characteristics of the transistor begin to be affected by quantum effects, such as longitudinal quantization (an electron propagates in the channel as a de Broglie wave) and transverse quantization (due to the narrowness of the channel), direct tunneling of electrons through the channel. The latter effect limits the possibilities of using CMOS elements in ICs, since it makes a large contribution to the total leakage current. This becomes significant at a channel length of 5 nm. CMOS ICs will be replaced by quantum devices, molecular electronic devices, etc.

    Analog ICs comprise a wide class of circuits that perform the functions of amplifiers, oscillators, attenuators, digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital converters, comparators, phase shifters, etc., including low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), and microwave ICs. Microwave ICs are circuits with a relatively small degree of integration, which can include not only transistors, but also film inductors, capacitors, and resistors. To create microwave ICs, not only the traditional silicon technology is used, but also the technology of heterojunction ICs based on Si - Ge solid solutions, A III B V compounds (for example, gallium arsenide and nitride, indium phosphide), etc. This makes it possible to achieve operating frequencies of 10-20 GHz for Si-Ge and 10-50 GHz and higher for microwave ICs on A III B V connections. Analog ICs are often used together with sensor and micromechanical devices, biochips, etc., which ensure the interaction of microelectronic devices with humans and the environment, and can be enclosed with them in the same housing. Such designs are called multi-chip or system-in-a-package.

    In the future, the development of IP will lead to the merging of two directions and the creation of microelectronic devices of great complexity, containing powerful computing devices, environmental control systems and means of communication with humans.

    Lit. look at Art. Microelectronics.

    A. A. Orlikovsky.

    Contents of the article

    INTEGRATED CIRCUIT(IC), a microelectronic circuit formed on a tiny wafer (crystal or "chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon, that is used to control electric shock and its strengthening. A typical IC consists of many interconnected microelectronic components, such as transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes, fabricated at the surface layer of the chip. The sizes of silicon crystals range from about 1.3-1.3 mm to 13-13 mm. Advances in the field of integrated circuits have led to the development of large-scale and very large-scale integrated circuits (LSI and VLSI) technologies. These technologies make it possible to obtain ICs, each of which contains many thousands of circuits: a single chip can contain more than 1 million components.

    Integrated circuits have a number of advantages over their predecessors - circuits that were assembled from individual components mounted on a chassis. ICs are smaller, faster and more reliable; They are also cheaper and less susceptible to failure caused by vibration, moisture and aging.

    Miniaturization electronic circuits turned out to be possible due to the special properties of semiconductors. A semiconductor is a material that has much greater electrical conductivity (conductivity) than a dielectric such as glass, but significantly less than conductors such as copper. The crystal lattice of a semiconductor material such as silicon has too few free electrons at room temperature to provide significant conductivity. Therefore, pure semiconductors have low conductivity. However, introducing an appropriate impurity into silicon increases its electrical conductivity.

    Dopants are introduced into silicon using two methods. For heavy doping or in cases where precise control of the amount of introduced impurity is not necessary, the diffusion method is usually used. Diffusion of phosphorus or boron is usually carried out in an atmosphere of a dopant at temperatures between 1000 and 1150 ° C for from half an hour to several hours. In ion implantation, silicon is bombarded with high-speed dopant ions. The amount of implanted impurity can be adjusted with an accuracy of several percent; accuracy in some cases is important, since the gain of the transistor depends on the number of impurity atoms implanted per 1 cm 2 base ( see below).

    Production.

    Manufacturing an integrated circuit can take up to two months because certain areas of the semiconductor must be precisely doped. In a process called crystal growing, or crystal pulling, a cylindrical slab of silicon is first produced. high purity. From this cylinder, plates with a thickness of, for example, 0.5 mm are cut. The wafer is eventually cut into hundreds of small pieces called chips, each of which is transformed into an integrated circuit through the process described below.

    The chip processing process begins with the production of masks for each layer of the IC. A large-scale stencil is made, shaped like a square with an area of ​​approx. 0.1 m 2. A set of such masks contains all the components of the IC: diffusion levels, interconnect levels, etc. The entire resulting structure is photographically reduced to the size of a crystal and reproduced layer by layer on a glass plate. A thin layer of silicon dioxide is grown on the surface of the silicon wafer. Each plate is coated with a light-sensitive material (photoresist) and exposed to light transmitted through masks. Unexposed areas of the photosensitive coating are removed with a solvent, and with the help of another chemical reagent that dissolves silicon dioxide, the latter is etched from those areas where it is no longer protected by the photosensitive coating. Variations of this basic process technology are used in the fabrication of two main types of transistor structures: bipolar and field-effect (MOS).

    Bipolar transistor.

    Such a transistor has a structure like n-p-n or, much less often, like p-n-p. Usually process starts with a plate (substrate) of heavily doped material p-type. A thin layer of lightly doped silicon is epitaxially grown on the surface of this wafer. n-type; thus, the grown layer has the same crystal structure as the substrate. This layer must contain the active part of the transistor - individual collectors will be formed in it. The plate is first placed in a boron vapor furnace. Boron diffusion into the silicon wafer occurs only where its surface has been etched. As a result, areas and windows of material are formed n-type. A second high-temperature process, which uses phosphorus vapor and another mask, serves to form contact with the collector layer. By carrying out successive diffusions of boron and phosphorus, the base and emitter are formed, respectively. The thickness of the base is usually several microns. These tiny islands of conductivity n- And p-type connected into general scheme through interconnects made of vapor deposited or vacuum sputtered aluminum. Sometimes noble metals such as platinum and gold are used for these purposes. Transistors and other circuit elements, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, along with associated interconnects, can be formed in the wafer by diffusion techniques through a series of operations, ultimately creating a complete electronic circuit.

    MOSFET transistor.

    The most widely used is MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) - a structure consisting of two closely spaced areas of silicon. n-type, implemented on a substrate p-type. A layer of silicon dioxide is built up on the silicon surface, and on top of this layer (between the regions n-type and lightly gripping them) a localized layer of metal is formed, acting as a gate. The two areas mentioned above n-types, called source and drain, serve as connecting elements for input and output, respectively. Through windows provided in the silicon dioxide, metal connections are made to the source and drain. Narrow surface channel made of material n-type connects source and drain; in other cases, the channel may be induced—created by voltage applied to the gate. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate of an induced channel transistor, the layer underneath the gate p-kind of turns into a layer n-type, and the current, controlled and modulated by the signal entering the gate, flows from source to drain. The MOSFET consumes very little power; it has a high input impedance, different low current drain circuits and very low level noise Since the gate, oxide and silicon form a capacitor, such a device is widely used in systems computer memory (see below). In complementary, or CMOS, circuits, the MOS structures are used as loads and do not consume power when the main MOS transistor is in the inactive state.

    After processing is completed, the plates are cut into pieces. The cutting operation is performed with a circular saw with diamond edges. Each crystal (chip, or IC) is then enclosed in one of several types of housing. 25 micron gold wire is used to connect the IC components to the package lead frame. Thicker frame pins allow you to connect the IC to electronic device in which she will work.

    Reliability.

    The reliability of an integrated circuit is approximately the same as that of an individual silicon transistor, equivalent in shape and size. Theoretically, transistors can last thousands of years without failure - a critical factor for applications such as rocketry and space technology, where a single failure can mean complete failure of the project.

    Microprocessors and minicomputers.

    First introduced publicly in 1971, microprocessors performed most of the basic functions of a computer on a single silicon IC, implemented on a 5-5 mm chip. Thanks to integrated circuits, it became possible to create minicomputers - small computers where all functions are performed on one or more large integrated circuits. This impressive miniaturization has led to a dramatic reduction in the cost of computing. Currently produced minicomputers priced less than $1000 are not inferior in performance to the first very large ones. computers, the cost of which reached up to $20 million in the early 1960s. Microprocessors are used in communications equipment, pocket calculators, wristwatch, television channel selectors, electronic games, automated kitchen and banking equipment, means of automatic fuel supply control and exhaust gas neutralization in passenger cars, as well as in many other devices. Much of the $15 billion global electronics industry relies on integrated circuits in one way or another. Around the world, integrated circuits are used in equipment with a total value of many tens of billions of dollars.

    Computer storage devices.

    In electronics, the term "memory" usually refers to any device designed to store information in digital form. Among the many types of storage devices (MSDs), we consider random access memory (RAM), charge-coupled device (CCD), and read-only memory (ROM).

    For RAM, the access time to any memory cell located on the chip is the same. Such devices can store 65,536 bits (binary units, typically 0 and 1), one bit per cell, and are a widely used type of electronic memory; on each chip they have approx. 150 thousand components. RAMs are available with a capacity of 256 Kbit (K = 2 10 = 1024; 256 K = 262,144). In memory devices with sequential access, the circulation of stored bits occurs as if along a closed conveyor (CCDs use exactly this type of sampling). A CCD, a specially configured IC, can place packets of electrical charges under closely spaced tiny metal strips that are electrically isolated from the chip. Charge (or lack thereof) can thus move throughout the semiconductor device from one cell to another. As a result, it becomes possible to remember information in the form of a sequence of ones and zeros ( binary code), as well as access to it when required. Although CCDs cannot compete with RAM memory in terms of speed, they can process large amounts of information at a lower cost and are used where random access memory is not required. The RAM, made on such an IC, is volatile, and the information recorded in it is lost when the power is turned off. Information is entered into ROM during production process and is stored permanently.

    The development and release of new types of IP does not stop. Erasable programmable ROMs (EPROMs) have two gates, one on top of the other. When voltage is applied to the upper gate, the lower one can acquire a charge, which corresponds to 1 in the binary code, and when switching (reversing) the voltage, the gate can lose its charge, which corresponds to 0 in the binary code.

    Just twenty-five years ago, radio amateurs and older generation specialists had to study new devices at that time - transistors. It wasn't easy to give up vacuum tubes, to which they are so accustomed, and switch to the crowding and ever-expanding “family” of semiconductor devices.

    And now this “family” has increasingly begun to give way to its place in radio engineering and electronics semiconductor devices the newest generation - integrated circuits, often abbreviated as ICs.

    What is an integrated circuit

    Integrated circuit is a miniature electronic unit containing in a common housing transistors, diodes, resistors and other active and passive elements, the number of which can reach several tens of thousands.

    One microcircuit can replace an entire unit of a radio receiver, an electronic computer (computer) and an electronic machine. The “mechanism” of a digital wristwatch, for example, is just one larger chip.

    According to their functional purpose, integrated circuits are divided into two main groups: analog, or linear-pulse, and logical, or digital, microcircuits.

    Analog microcircuits are intended for amplification, generation and conversion of electrical oscillations of different frequencies, for example, for receivers, amplifiers, and logical ones - for use in automation devices, in devices with digital countdown time, in a computer.

    This workshop is devoted to familiarization with the device, operating principle and possible application of the simplest analog and logical integrated circuits.

    On an analog chip

    Of the huge “family” of analogue ones, the simplest are the twin microcircuits K118UN1A (K1US181A) and K118UN1B (K1US181B), which are part of the K118 series.

    Each of them is an amplifier containing... However, it’s better to talk about the electronic “stuffing” instead. For now, we will consider them “black boxes” with pins for connecting power supplies, additional parts, input and output circuits to them.

    The difference between them lies only in their amplification factors for low-frequency oscillations: the gain factor of the K118UN1A microcircuit at a frequency of 12 kHz is 250, and the K118UN1B microcircuit is 400.

    On high frequencies and the gain of these microcircuits is the same - approximately 50. So, any of them can be used to amplify oscillations of both low and high frequencies, and therefore for our experiments. Appearance And symbol These amplifier microcircuits are shown in circuit diagrams of the devices in Fig. 88.

    They have a plastic body rectangular shape. On the top of the case there is a mark that serves as a reference point for the pin numbers. The microcircuits are designed to be powered from a source DC voltage of 6.3 V, which is supplied through pins 7 (+Upit) and 14 (— U Pete).

    The power source can be an AC power supply with adjustable output voltage or a battery made up of four cells 334 and 343.

    The first experiment with the K118UN1A (or K118UN1B) microcircuit was carried out according to the diagram shown in Fig. 89. As a mounting board, use a cardboard plate measuring approximately 50X40 mm.

    Microcircuit pins 1, 7, 8 And 14 solder to wire staples passed through holes in the cardboard. All of them will act as stands holding the microcircuit on the board, and the pin brackets 7. and 14, in addition, connecting contacts with the battery G.B.1 (or network block food).

    Between them, on both sides of the microcircuit, strengthen two or three more contacts, which will be intermediate for additional parts. Mount capacitors on the board C1(type K50-6 or K50-3) and C2(KYAS, BM, MBM), connect headphones to the output of the microcircuit B2.

    Connect to the input of the microcircuit (through a capacitor C1) electrodynamic microphone B1 any type or DEM-4m telephone capsule, turn on the power and, pressing the phones more tightly to your ears, tap lightly on the microphone with a pencil. If there are no errors in the installation, sounds resembling clicks on a drum should be heard in the phones.

    Ask a friend to say something in front of the microphone - you will hear his voice on the phones. Instead of a microphone, you can connect a radio broadcast (subscriber) loudspeaker with its matching transformer to the input of the microcircuit. The effect will be about the same.

    Continuing the experiment with a single-acting telephone device, connect between the common (negative) conductor of the power circuit and the output 12 microcircuit electrolytic capacitor NW, indicated on the diagram by dashed lines. At the same time, the sound volume on phones should increase.

    Telephones will sound even louder if the same capacitor is connected to the output circuit 5 (in Fig. 89 - capacitor C4). But if the amplifier is excited, then between the common wire and pin 11 you will have to connect an electrolytic capacitor with a capacity of 5 - 10 µF. nominal voltage 10 V.

    Another experiment: turn it on between the pins 10 And 3 chips ceramic or paper capacitor with a capacity of 5 - 10 thousand picofarads. What happened? An incessant medium-pitched sound appeared on phones. As the capacitance of this capacitor increases, the sound tone in telephones should decrease, and with decrease, it should increase. Check it out.

    Now let’s open this “black box” and look at its “filling” (Fig. 90). Yes, this is a two-stage amplifier with direct coupling between its transistors. Silicon transistors, structures n -p-n. The low-frequency signal generated by the microphone is supplied (via capacitor C1) to the input of the microcircuit (pin 3).

    Voltage drop created across the resistor R6 in the emitter circuit of the transistor V2, through resistors R4 And R5 supplied to the base of the transistor VI and opens it. Resistor R1 — load of this transistor. Shot from it amplified signal goes to the base of the transistor V2 for additional gain.

    In an experimental amplifier with a transistor load V2 there were headphones included in its collector circuit, which converted low frequency signal into sound.

    But its load could be a resistor R5 microcircuits, if you connect the leads together 10 And 9. In this case, the telephones must be connected between the common wire and the connection point of these terminals through an electrolytic capacitor with a capacity of several microfarads (the positive plate to the microcircuit).

    When connecting a capacitor between the common wire and the terminal 12 microcircuit, the sound volume has increased, Why? Because he is shunting the resistor R6 microcircuit, weakened the negative feedback on alternating current operating in it.

    The negative feedback became even weaker when you included a second capacitor in the base circuit of the transistor V1. And the third capacitor connected between the common wire and the output 11, formed with a resistor R7 microcircuit decoupling filter that prevents excitation of the amplifier.

    What happened when you connected a capacitor between the terminals 10 and 5? He created a positive feedback between the output and input of the amplifier, which turned it into an audio frequency oscillator.

    So, as you can see, the K118UN1B (or K118UN1A) microcircuit is an amplifier that can be low-frequency or high-frequency, for example, in a receiver. But it can also become a generator of electrical oscillations of both low and high frequencies.

    Microcircuit in a radio receiver

    We propose to test this microcircuit in the high-frequency path of a receiver assembled, for example, according to the circuit shown in Fig. 91. The input circuit of the magnetic antenna of such a receiver is formed by a coil L1 and a variable capacitor C1. High-frequency signal from the radio station to which the circuit is tuned, through a communication coil L2 and isolation capacitor C2 arrives at the input (output 3) microcircuits L1.

    From the output of the microcircuit (output 10, connected to output 9) the amplified signal is fed through a capacitor C4 for detector, diodes VI And V2 which are switched on according to the voltage multiplication circuit, and the low-frequency signal allocated to it B1 converted to sound. The receiver is battery powered G.B.1, composed of four elements 332, 316 or five D-01 batteries.

    In many transistor receivers, the high-frequency amplifier is formed by transistors, but in this one it is a microcircuit. This is the only difference between them. Having the experience of previous workshops, I hope you will be able to independently mount and G set up such a receiver and even, if you wish, supplement it with a low-frequency amplifier for loud-speaking radio reception.

    On a logic chip

    An integral part of many digital integrated circuits is the AND-NOT logical element, the symbol of which you see in Fig. 92, A. Its symbol is the "&" sign placed inside a rectangle, usually in the upper left corner, replacing the conjunction "AND" in English. There are two or more inputs on the left, one output on the right.

    The small circle that begins the communication line of the output signal symbolizes the logical Negation “NOT” at the output of the microcircuit. In the language of digital technology, “NOT” means that the NAND element is an inverter, that is, a device whose output parameters are opposite to the input ones.

    The electrical state and operation of a logic element are characterized by the signal levels at its inputs and output. A small (or zero) voltage signal, the level of which does not exceed 0.3 - 0.4 V, is usually called (in accordance with the binary number system) logical zero (0), and a signal more high voltage(compared to logical 0), the level of which can be 2.5 - 3.5 V, is a logical unit (1).

    For example, they say: “the output of the element is logical 1.” This means that at the moment a signal has appeared at the output of the element, the voltage of which corresponds to the logical level 1.

    In order not to delve into the technology and structure of the NAND element, we will consider it as a “black box”, which has two inputs and one output for an electrical signal.

    The logic of the element is that when logical O is applied to one of its inputs, and logical 1 is applied to the second input, a logical 1 signal appears at the output, which disappears when signals corresponding to logical 1 are applied to both inputs.

    For experiments that memorize this property of the element, you will need the most common K155LAZ microcircuit, a DC voltmeter, a fresh 3336L battery and two resistors with a resistance of 1...1.2 kOhm.

    The K155LAZ microcircuit consists of four 2I-NOT elements (Fig. 92, b), powered by one common 5 V DC source, but each of them operates as an independent logic device. The number 2 in the name of the microcircuit indicates that its elements have two inputs.

    In appearance and design, it, like all microcircuits of the K155 series, does not differ from the already familiar analog microcircuit K118UN1, only the polarity of connecting the power source is different. Therefore, the cardboard board you made earlier is suitable for experiments with this microcircuit. The power source is connected: +5 V - to pin 7" — 5 B - to conclusion 14.

    But these conclusions are not usually indicated on a schematic diagram of the microcircuit. This is explained by the fact that on fundamental electrical diagrams The elements that make up the microcircuit are depicted separately, for example, as in Fig. 92, v. For experiments, you can use any of its four elements.

    Microcircuit pins 1, 7, 8 And 14 solder to the wire posts on the cardboard board (as in Fig. 89). One of the input pins of any of its elements, for example, an element with pins 1 — 3, connect through a resistor with a resistance of 1...1.2 kOhm to the output 14, the output of the second input is directly with the common (“grounded”) conductor of the power circuit, and connect a DC voltmeter to the output of the element (Fig. 93, A).

    Turn on the power. What does the voltmeter show? A voltage of approximately 3 V. This voltage corresponds to a logic 1 signal at the output of the element. Using the same voltmeter, measure the voltage at the output of the first input. And here, as you can see, it is also logical 1. Therefore, when one of the inputs of the element is logical 1, and the second is logical 0, the output will be logical 1.

    Now connect the output of the second input through a resistor with a resistance of 1...1.2 kOhm to the output 14 and at the same time a wire jumper - with a common conductor, as shown in Fig. 93, b.

    In this case, the output, as in the first experiment, will be logical 1. Next, watching the voltmeter needle, remove the jumper wire so that a signal corresponding to logical 1 is sent to the second input.

    What does a voltmeter record? The signal at the output of the element is converted to logical 0. This is how it should be! And if any of the inputs are periodically shorted to a common wire and thereby simulate the supply of a logical 0 to it, then current pulses will appear at the output of the element with the same frequency, as evidenced by fluctuations in the voltmeter needle. Check this out experimentally.

    The property of the NAND element to change its state under the influence of input control signals is widely used in various devices digital computing. Radio amateurs, especially beginners, very often use a logic element as an inverter - a device whose output signal is opposite to the input signal.

    The following experiment can confirm this property of the element. Connect the terminals of both inputs of the element together and, through a resistor with a resistance of 1...1.2 kOhm, connect them to the output 14 (Fig. 93, V).

    This way you will apply a signal corresponding to logical 1 to the common input of the element, the voltage of which can be measured with a voltmeter. What is the output?

    The voltmeter needle connected to it slightly deviated from the zero scale mark. Here, therefore, as expected, the signal corresponds to logical 0.

    Then, without disconnecting the resistor from the output 14 microcircuits, connect the input of the element to the common conductor several times in a row with a wire jumper (in Fig. 93, V shown by a dashed line with arrows) and at the same time follow the voltmeter needle. So you will be convinced that when the inverter input is logical 0, the output is logical 1 and, conversely, when the input is logical 1, the output is logical 0.

    This is how an inverter works, especially often used by radio amateurs in the pulsed devices they construct.

    An example of such a device is a pulse generator assembled according to the circuit shown in Fig. 94. You can verify its functionality right away, spending just a few minutes on it.

    The output of element D1.1 is connected to the inputs of the element D1.2 the same microcircuit, its output is with the inputs of the element DJ.3, and the output of this element (output 8) - with element input D1.1 through variable resistor R1 . To element output D1.3 (between output 8 and a common conductor) connect the headphones B1, a parallel to elements D1.1 and D1.2 electrolytic capacitor C1.

    Set the variable resistor slider to the right (according to the diagram) position and turn on the power - in phones you will hear a sound, the tone of which can be changed with a variable resistor.

    In this experiment the elements D1.1, D1.2 andD1.3, connected to each other in series, like the transistors of a three-stage amplifier, they formed a multivibrator - a generator of rectangular electrical pulses.

    The microcircuit became a generator thanks to a capacitor and resistor, which created frequency-dependent circuits between the output and input of the elements feedback. Using a variable resistor, the frequency of the pulses generated by the multivibrator can be smoothly varied from approximately 300 Hz to 10 kHz.

    Which practical application might find something like this pulse device? It can become, for example, an apartment bell, a probe for checking the performance of the receiver and low-frequency amplifier cascades, a generator for training in listening to the telegraph alphabet.

    Homemade slot machine on a chip

    Such a device can be turned into a slot machine “Red or Green?” The diagram of such an impulse device is shown in Fig. 95. Here are the elements D1.1, D1.2, D1.3 the same (or the same) K155LAZ microcircuit and capacitor C1 form a similar multivibrator, the pulses of which control transistors VI And V2, connected according to a common emitter circuit.

    Element D1.4 works like an inverter. Thanks to it, the multivibrator pulses arrive at the bases of the transistors in antiphase and open them alternately. So, for example, when the logical level is 1 at the input of the inverter, and the logical level is 0 at the output, then at these moments, the transistor B1 open and light bulb HI in its collector circuit is lit, and the transistor V2 closed and its light bulb H2 does not burn.

    With the next pulse, the inverter will change its state to the opposite. Now the transistor will open V2 and the light comes on H2, and the transistor VI the light bulb will close H1 will go out.

    But the frequency of the pulses generated by the multivibrator is relatively high (at least 15 kHz) and light bulbs, naturally, cannot respond to every pulse.

    That's why they glow dimly. But it’s worth pressing the S1 button to short-circuit the capacitor with its contacts C1 and thereby disrupt the generation of the multivibrator, when the light bulb of the transistor on the basis of which at that moment there will be a voltage corresponding to logical 1 immediately lights up brightly, and the other light bulb goes out completely.

    It is impossible to say in advance which of the bulbs will continue to light after pressing the button - one can only guess. This is the point of the game.

    The slot machine along with the battery (3336L or three 343 elements connected in series) can be placed in a small box, for example, in the case of a “pocket” receiver.

    Incandescent light bulbs HI And H2(MH2.5-0.068 or MH2.5-0.15) place under the holes in the front wall of the case and cover them with caps or organic glass plates of red and green colors. Here, strengthen the power switch (toggle switch TV-1) and the push-button switch §1(type P2K or KM-N) stopping the multivibrator.

    Setting up slot machine lies in careful selection of resistor R1. Its resistance should be such that when you stop the multivibrator with the button S1 at least 80 - 100 times the number of lights on each of the bulbs was approximately the same.

    First check if the multivibrator is working. To do this, parallel to the capacitor C1, e, the capacitance of which can be 0.1...0.5 µF, connect an electrolytic capacitor with a capacity of 20...30 µF, and headphones to the output of the multivibrator - a low-pitched sound should appear in the phones.

    This sound is a sign of the multivibrator working. Then remove the electrolytic capacitor, resistor R1 replace with a tuning resistor with a resistance of 1.2...1.3 kOhm, and between the terminals 8 and 11 elements D.I..3 And D1.4 turn on the DC voltmeter. By changing the resistance of the trimming resistor, achieve a position such that the voltmeter shows zero voltage between the outputs of these elements of the microcircuit.

    There can be any number of players. Each person takes turns pressing the multivibrator stop button. The winner is the one who, with an equal number of moves, for example twenty button presses, larger number times to guess the colors of the light bulbs after the multivibrator stops.

    Unfortunately, the frequency of the multivibrator of the simplest slot machine described here changes somewhat due to battery discharge, which, of course, affects the equal probability of lighting different light bulbs, so it is better to power it from a stabilized voltage source of 5 V.

    Literature: Borisov V.G. Workshop for a beginner radio amateur. 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: DOSAAF, 1984. 144 p., ill. 55k.

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