Technology for processing economic information. Technologies for processing economic information

Technology and processing methods economic information

2.2.1. Main technology classes

Let's give another definition of technology - presented in project form, i.e. in the form of formalized representations (technical descriptions, drawings, diagrams, instructions, manuals, etc.), a concentrated expression of scientific knowledge and practical experience, which allows you to rationally organize any process to save labor costs, energy, material resources or social time required to implement this process.

It seems appropriate to distinguish three main classes of technologies:

Production - ensure optimization of processes in the field of material production of goods and services and their public distribution;

Information - designed to increase the efficiency of processes occurring in information sphere society, including science, culture, education, media and information communications;

Social - focused on the rational organization of social processes.

Kuznetsov P.G. proposed to use the concept of social time, introduced by academician V.G., as a universal measure of the cost of social labor. Afanasyev. Based on their ideas, it is possible to propose the use of the concept of social time as a general indicator for quantifying the characteristics of any type of technology. Indeed, the goal of technology is the rational organization of some production, social or information process. In this case, savings can be achieved not only in the astronomical time necessary to implement this process, but also in the material resources, energy or equipment that support this process. The costs of social labor for the production and delivery of the specified supporting means to the place of implementation of the technological process we are considering, in turn, can also be expressed by a certain amount of social time costs. This leads to a well-founded conclusion: social time is universal. overall indicator any technological processes.

In accordance with the above definition, information technology is a concentrated expression of scientific knowledge and practical experience presented in project form, which allows one to rationally organize a particular information process to save labor, energy or material resources.

Information processes are widely used in various fields of activity of modern society. They are often components of other, more complex processes - social, management, production.

The main distinctive feature of information technologies is their targeted focus on optimizing information processes, the output result of which is information. As a general criterion for the effectiveness of information technology, we will use the saving of social time necessary to implement the information process, organized in accordance with the requirements and recommendations of this technology.

The criterion for saving social time requires, first of all, the improvement of the most widespread information processes, the optimization of which should provide the greatest benefit due to their widespread and repeated use.

2.2.2. Basic methods for processing economic information

One of the main purposes of information technology is the collection, processing and provision of information for making management decisions. In this regard, it is convenient to consider methods of processing economic information according to the phases of the life cycle of the management decision-making process: 1) diagnosis of problems; 2) development (generation) of alternatives; 3) choice of solution; 4) implementation of the solution.

The methods used in the problem diagnostic phase ensure its reliable and most full description. They include (Fig. 2.2) methods of comparison, factor analysis, modeling (economic and mathematical methods, methods of queuing theory, inventory theory, economic analysis) and forecasting (qualitative and quantitative methods). All these methods collect, store, process and analyze information and record the most important events. The set of methods depends on the nature and content of the problem, the timing and funds allocated at the formulation stage.

Methods for developing (generating) alternatives are shown in Fig. 2.3. At this stage, methods of collecting information are also used, but unlike the first stage, at which the search for answers to questions like “What happened?” and “For what reasons?”, here they determine how the problem can be solved, with the help of what management actions.

When developing alternatives (methods of management actions to achieve a set goal), methods are used as individual

dual and collective problem solving. Individual methods are characterized by the least amount of time, but these solutions are not always optimal. When generating alternatives, an intuitive approach or methods of logical (rational) problem solving are used. To assist the decision maker (DM), problem solving experts are brought in to participate in the development of alternatives (Figure 2.4). Collective problem solving is carried out using the brainstorming/storming model (Fig. 2.5), Delphi and nominal group techniques.

In a brainstorming session, we are dealing with an open-ended discussion, which is carried out mainly in groups consisting of 4-10 participants. It is also possible to brainstorm alone. The greater the difference between the participants, the more fruitful the result (due to different experiences, temperaments, work areas).

Participants do not require deep and lengthy preparation or experience in this method. However, the quality of the ideas put forward and the time spent will indicate how familiar the individual participants or target groups are with the principles and ground rules of the method. It is positive that the participants have knowledge and experience in the field in question. The duration of a brainstorming session can be selected from several minutes to several hours; the generally accepted duration is 20-30 minutes.

When using the brainstorming method in small groups, you should strictly adhere to two principles: refrain from evaluating ideas (here quantity turns into quality) and follow four basic rules - criticism is excluded, free association is encouraged, the number of options is desirable, combinations and improvements are sought.

The choice of decision occurs most often under conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty (Fig. 2.6). The difference between these states of the environment is determined by the amount of information, the degree of knowledge of the decision maker about the essence of phenomena, and the conditions for decision-making.

Conditions of certainty represent such decision-making conditions (the state of knowledge about the essence of phenomena), when the decision-maker can determine in advance the result (outcome) of each alternative proposed for choice. This situation is typical for tactical

short-term solutions. In this case, the decision maker has detailed information, i.e. comprehensive knowledge about the situation to make a decision.

Risk conditions are characterized by such a state of knowledge about the essence of the phenomenon when the decision maker knows the probabilities of the possible consequences of the implementation of each alternative. Conditions of risk and uncertainty are characterized by the so-called conditions of multiple-valued expectations of the future situation in the external environment. In this case, the decision maker must make a choice of an alternative without having an accurate idea of ​​the environmental factors and their influence on the result. Under these conditions, the outcome, the result of each alternative is a function of conditions - environmental factors (utility function), which the decision maker is not always able to foresee. A decision matrix, also called a payoff matrix, is used to present and analyze the results of selected alternative strategies.

Conditions of uncertainty represent such a state of the environment (knowledge about the essence of phenomena) when each alternative can have several outcomes, and the probability of these outcomes occurring is unknown. The uncertainty of the decision-making environment depends on the relationship between the amount of information and its reliability. The more uncertain the external environment, the more difficult it is to accept effective solutions. The decision-making environment also depends on the degree of dynamics and mobility of the environment, i.e. the speed of changes in decision-making conditions. Changes in conditions can occur both as a result of the development of the organization, i.e. its acquisition of the ability to solve new problems, the ability to update, and under the influence of factors external to the organization that cannot be regulated by the organization. The choice of the best solution under conditions of uncertainty significantly depends on the degree of this uncertainty, i.e. depends on what information the decision maker has. Choosing the best solution under conditions of uncertainty, when the probabilities of possible variants of conditions are unknown, but there are principles of approach to assessing the results of actions, ensures the use of the following four criteria: the Wald maximin criterion; Savage's minimax criterion; Hurwitz criterion of pessimism-optimism; Laplace criterion or Bayesian criterion.

When implementing decisions, methods of planning, organizing and monitoring the implementation of decisions are used (Fig. 2.7). Drawing up a plan for implementing a solution involves obtaining answers to the questions “what, to whom and with whom, how, where and when to do it?” The answers to these questions must be documented. The main methods used in planning management decisions are network modeling and separation of duties (Fig. 2.8). The main tools of network modeling are network matrices (Fig. 2.9), where the network diagram is combined with a calendar-scale time grid.

Methods for organizing the implementation of decisions include methods for compiling an information table for the implementation of decisions (ITRI) and methods of influence and motivation.

Methods for monitoring the implementation of decisions are divided into control over intermediate and final results and control over deadlines (operations in ITRR). The main purpose of control is to create a system of guarantees for the implementation of decisions, a system for ensuring the highest possible quality of the decision.

Topic 5:

Methods for processing economic information in analysis

Question No. 1. Classification of EA methods

Any method is a set of certain logical operations of quantitative calculations that allow one to obtain new knowledge about the object being studied, in particular:

identifying cause-and-effect relationships between processes and phenomena;

determining the strength of influence of various groups of factors on the object being studied and reproducing the mechanism of formation of the process or object being studied.

It is the last stage, associated with the synthesis of the studied processes, that makes it possible to ensure the predictive orientation of economic analysis, turning it from explaining and understanding what happened to regulating the future, i.e. to management.

The scientific basis of the method of any science is the dialectical theory of knowledge. The principles of dialectics are used to study the significance of all economic phenomena and processes. This involves studying the economic activities of enterprises in development and change in the transition from quantity to quality, identifying and assessing cause-and-effect relationships.

The key point in the methodology of economic analysis is the selection and use of a system of indicators, their processing in special ways.

The method of economic analysis is a scientific approach to the study of economic processes and results of financial and economic activities of enterprises based on special techniques and methods of analysis.

Any method is a combination of logical thinking and quantitative calculations that make it possible to assess, diagnose and predict the phenomena being studied.

The method of economic analysis consists of a system of theoretical categories, regulatory principles and scientific tools.

Scientific tools are techniques, methods, means that are used to achieve the goals of analysis.

Features of scientific instruments:

1. use of methods of related sciences (branches), i.e. openness of the method of economic analysis;

2. at different stages of business activity analysis, various methods and techniques are used depending on information, technological support and other factors.

The principles are: systematic, comprehensive, scientific, efficient, etc.

When choosing a method of economic analysis, you should consider:

Goals and objectives of the analysis;

Features of the object of analysis;

A system of indicators characterizing the object of analysis;

Technical capabilities for analytical work;

Consumers of analysis results;

Analyst qualifications.

Methods of analysis are formed under the influence of the goals and objectives of economic analysis. In this regard, analysis methods must ensure that all stages of the study are carried out:

1. monitoring the formation, change and development of a business entity at all stages of its life cycle; at this stage it is important to determine the main characteristics of an economic phenomenon or process, methods for their measurement and assessment, the formation of basic and derivative, absolute and relative indicators; therefore, at this stage the information base of the analysis is formed;

2. systematization, grouping and comparison of the studied phenomena and processes in order to identify homogeneous, interconnected and mutually exclusive processes and phenomena (pattern recognition);

3. detailing the processes and phenomena being studied (the actual process of dissection), which allows us to identify the main factors and conditions in which the observed and studied objects developed, the trends in their changes and the strength of influence on the object being studied;

4. description of the mechanism for the formation of the objects under study, based on which it is possible to compare alternative approaches to the implementation of the goals and objectives set by the organization, i.e. make management decisions.

At each stage of analysis, specific research methods are used, but they are closely related to each other and have a certain sequence. This demonstrates the systematic nature of economic analysis. At different stages of analysis, methods and techniques are used in different combinations and with varying degrees of intensity, the scientific apparatus of economic analysis is being formed.

For specific analysis methods in relation to business entities of a certain class, special (private) methods are created that identify the purpose of the analysis, the composition of the factor and the conditions for the formation of the information base, methods and techniques of analysis.

As in any science, methods of economic analysis can be divided into general scientific and specifically scientific. The first includes methods common to all sciences. They are associated with observation, comparison, detailing, abstraction, modeling, experimentation. Analysis and synthesis also belong to general scientific methods.

At the same time, the possibility of using general scientific methods depends on the general level of development of the object being studied, the control of the processes being studied, and the technical means at the disposal of the researcher. For example, the real use of modeling in economic analysis became possible only with the development of a methodology of economic and mathematical methods and the widespread use of electronic computer technology.

Specific scientific methods are formed within the framework of individual sciences and are the detailing and concretization of general scientific methods of cognition.

Carrying out analytical calculations is associated with a targeted selection of a set of methods and techniques that are adequate to the purpose of the analysis and the characteristics of the situation being analyzed. When choosing methods, it is necessary to ensure the functional completeness of the analysis while limiting the cost of time and money for its implementation.

The initial stage of a retrospective analysis is most often the organization of certain source data using methods such as grouping, aggregation, detailing, balancing, and identifying “bottlenecks and leading links” in the object being studied. At the next stage of analysis, one of the comparison methods is used: structural, temporal, dynamic, spatial, basic, rating, or a combination thereof. To identify deterministic connections in the analyzed phenomena and processes, the elimination method is used, usually carried out using the technique of valuable substitutions, absolute or relative sacristies and other techniques. Stochastic modeling with the aim of identifying the influence of factors on the result indicator is carried out using such methods of economic and mathematical modeling as correlation, regression, dispersion and other techniques.

For predictive analysis, which forms the basis of strategic decisions, it is possible to use methods for evaluating alternatives (target, scoring, expert, ranking, paired comparison, typology, etc.). The most effective methods of previous analysis, combining the search and evaluation of solution options, in our opinion, include heuristic methods (brainstorming, collective notebook, business games, method of sociological testing of analysis and control, etc.).

As noted, the composition of specific scientific methods depends, first of all, on the object of research. Since the subject of economic analysis is the activities of business entities of different forms of ownership, structures and profiles, the specific scientific method of economic analysis should cover the entire reproduction process within the framework of a business entity, starting from goal setting - the choice of types of business, the purpose of the object, types of activities - to serving consumers when using products (works, services). Most of the calculation methods included in the traditional tools of technical and economic analysis are demonstrated in detail using the example of solving specific problems. Calculation methods are well developed, calculations in accordance with them are included in modern software.

In economic analysis, the following groups of methods can be distinguished:

1. Traditional or statistical:

Observation

Grouping

Using absolute, relative and average values

Dynamics series

Analysis of variance and others

2. Methods of accounting and financial analysis:

Double entry and balance sheet method

Horizontal, vertical, trend analysis

Analysis of financial ratios

Factor analysis

3. Economic and mathematical methods:

Methods of elementary mathematics

Methods of mathematical analysis

Mathematical statistics

Mathematical programming

Econometric methods

Methods of mathematical cybernetics

4. Heuristic methods:

Specific question method

Brainstorming method

Morphological method

Collaborative Notepad Method

Method of expert assessments and others.

In the process of economic analysis and analytical processing of economic information, a number of special methods and techniques are used. They reveal the specificity of the method of economic analysis and reflect its systemic, complex nature. Systematicity in economic analysis is determined by the fact that economic processes are considered as diverse, internally complex unities, consisting of interrelated parties and elements. In the course of such an analysis, connections between parties and elements are identified and studied, and it is established how these connections, as a result of interaction, lead to the unity of the process being studied in its entirety. The systematic nature of economic analysis is also manifested in the combination, in the aggregate, of all specific techniques based on its own achievements and the achievements of a number of related sciences (mathematics, statistics, accounting, planning, management, economic cybernetics, etc.).

The basis of the methods and techniques of economic analysis are traditional methods, including such methods and techniques that have been used almost since the emergence of economic analysis as a separate branch of specialized knowledge. Many mathematical methods and techniques entered the circle of analytical developments much later, when economic-mathematical methods and modern computer technology began to be actively used in economics.

The main traditional methods and techniques of economic analysis include the use of absolute, relative and average values, comparisons, groupings, the index method, the method of chain substitutions, and the balance method.

Question No. 2. Statistical methods

Traditional or statistical methods (formalized) are used in the study of many economic sciences and are used in preliminary and general assessment of economic activity. However, the basis for the effectiveness of analytical work in modern conditions is the use of mathematical and heuristic models, which makes the analysis more accurate and in-depth. Calculation methods that use strict rules of logic are designed to obtain numerical values ​​and are based on economic and mathematical modeling and computational operations performed on economic indicators.

1. Observation is a scientifically organized, systematic process of collecting mass information about phenomena based on certain characteristics.

Observations can be in the form of reporting and special organized forms, continuous, selective, current and periodic.

2. Summary and Grouping data.

A summary is a summary of data and identification of typical patterns.

Grouping is the division of the object of analysis into homogeneous groups, taking into account the conditions of place and time. Grouping can be: typological, structural, analytical. Individual values ​​of indicators are replaced by group averages. Groupings allow not only to systematize the material, but also to identify characteristic and typical relationships between processes and to suppress random deviations.

The following types of groupings are used in the analysis: typological(for example, grouping organizations by type of ownership); structural- to assess the internal structure of indicators (for example, to study personnel by length of service, by profession, etc.); analytical groupings- to study the relationship between factors and performance indicators (for example, the dependence of the amount of a loan issued by a bank on the interest rate).

The grouping method is the main one among the ordering methods. It involves dividing the studied set of objects into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to relevant characteristics. In analysis, grouping is used to identify phenomena in order to study the composition, structure and dynamics of development, and determine average values. Grouping involves not only the classification of phenomena and processes, but also the causes and factors that determine them. Groups combine qualitatively homogeneous phenomena that are similar in economic or social nature.

The general population serves as the information basis for the grouping. In the first case, data systematically accumulated in the information fund is used, in the second - typological samples. Economically sound grouping allows you to study the relationship between indicators and systematize analytical data.

Grouping is an integral part of almost any economic study. It allows you to study certain economic phenomena in their interrelation and interdependence, identify the influence of the most significant factors, and discover certain patterns and trends characteristic of these phenomena and processes. Grouping involves a certain classification of phenomena and processes, as well as the causes and factors that determine them.

Scientific classification of economic phenomena, their association into homogeneous groups and subgroups is possible only on the basis of their careful study. It is impossible to group phenomena according to random characteristics; it is necessary to reveal their political and economic nature. The same can be said about the reasons and factors influencing the indicators. With the help of economic analysis, the causal relationship, interdependence and interdependence, the main causes and factors are established, and only after that the nature of their influence is based on the construction of group tables. You cannot build a group table to identify a minor factor.

Grouping as a method of analysis can be widely used in concerns, joint stock companies, limited liability partnerships and other associations.

Associations, especially enterprises of the same type, which are qualitatively homogeneous groups, have the opportunity to widely use typological, structural and analytical groupings. In this case, the objects of study can be both the enterprises themselves or their internal divisions, as well as similar business operations. For example, in the system of tractor and agricultural engineering, typological groupings and analysis were carried out by homogeneous enterprises as a whole and types of production (distributions). With the help of groupings and comparative analysis, foundry production (with the selection of gray and malleable cast iron, steel and non-ferrous castings), forging production, cold stamping, heat treatment, machining, welding, assembly, protective coatings was studied; tool, warehouse, repair and transport facilities.

Structural groupings are used, as their name indicates, when studying the composition of the enterprises themselves (by production capacity, level of mechanization, labor productivity and other characteristics), as well as the structure of the products they produce (by type and given assortment). Composition and structure can be considered both statically and dynamically, which naturally expands the boundaries of economic analysis.

Analytical groupings, essentially covering typological and structural ones, are intended to identify the relationship, interdependence and interaction between the phenomena, objects, and indicators being studied.

When constructing analytical groupings from two interrelated indicators, one is considered as a factor influencing the other, and the second is considered as a result of the influence of the first. It should be borne in mind that the interdependence and mutual influence of the factor and resultant characteristics for each specific case may change (a factor characteristic can act as an outcome characteristic and vice versa).

Group tables can be built either by one characteristic (simple groupings) or by several (combinative groupings).

Either the general population of objects of the same type or a sample population serves as the information basis for the grouping. In the first case, mainly materials from national or regional censuses are used; in the second - typological sampling.

The latter is constructed using the formula of a random irrevocable sample

N ∆x 2 + t 2 σx2

where n is the required sample size;

t- trust coefficient;

σs 2 - total sample variance;

N is the volume of the general population;

∆x 2 - maximum error of the sample mean.

3.Usage absolute, relative and average values.

Absolute values ​​are numbers that define the unit of measurement of an object (in natural, cost, labor units of measurement) and are used as the basis for calculating relative and average indicators.

Relative values ​​are the ratio of two absolute indicators.

Relative dynamics indicators: chain, basic;

Relative indicators of the planned target and plan implementation;

Relative indicators of structure, coordination, intensity, comparison;

Relative indicators of the level of economic development;

The analysis of certain indicators, economic phenomena, processes, situations begins with the use of absolute values ​​(volume of production by value or in physical terms, volume of trade turnover, the sum of production costs and distribution costs, the sum of gross income and the sum of profit). It is impossible to do without absolute values ​​in analysis, as in accounting and statistics. But if in accounting they are the main measure, then in analysis they are used more as a basis for calculating average and relative values.

The quantitative certainty of indicators, including those that are compared, is expressed in absolute and relative values. Relative indicators in relation to the comparison base are obtained by dividing one value by another. They are calculated in fractions of one, in coefficients if the base is 1; as a percentage (%) if the base is 100; in ppm (‰), if 1000 is taken as the base of comparison; in prodecimal (‰ 0) if the base is 10,000.

The content, objectives and cognitive significance of quantitative relationships determine the types of relative indicators: business plan and its implementation, dynamics, structure, coordination, intensity, efficiency, etc. It should be noted that relative values ​​are highly analytical when characterizing the intensity of resource use, studying indicators of structural order and coordination . Relative coordination indicators reflect how many times any part of the population is larger than another. Such indicators are, for example, leverage (the ratio of borrowed capital to equity), the strength of the impact of operating leverage (the ratio of marginal income to sales profit), which are of exceptionally great cognitive importance.

Economic analysis essentially begins with the calculation of relative quantities. If, for example, the business plan provided for the production of industrial products worth 1 million rubles, but only 950 thousand rubles were produced, then in relation to the task this will be only 95%. An analytical comment suggests itself here.

Relative quantities are indispensable in the analysis of dynamic phenomena. It is clear that these phenomena can be expressed in absolute values, but intelligibility and brightness are achieved only through relative values. Relative values ​​of dynamics are calculated by constructing a time series, i.e. they characterize the change in a particular indicator or phenomenon over time (the ratio, for example, of industrial output over a number of years to the base period taken as 100).

The analyticity of relative values ​​is also clearly demonstrated when studying indicators of structural order. Reflecting the relationship of a part of the population to the population taken as a whole, they clearly illustrate both the entire population and its part (for example, the share of finished goods of primary use, auxiliary products and work in progress in the gross output).

Relative intensity values ​​are purely analytical in nature (for example, the output of industrial products per 100 rubles of advanced funds, the output of agricultural products per 100 hectares of arable land, the amount of retail turnover per 1 m of retail space).

In economic analysis, average values ​​are often used, which represent a generalizing characteristic of qualitatively homogeneous, but quantitatively different values. Source data and content of the calculated indicator. They predetermine the type of average used: arithmetic, chronological moment series, geometric, quadratic, each in simple and weighted form. Structural averages include mode and median. Most often in analytical calculations, the arithmetic mean, simple and weighted, as well as the geometric mean are used. Let us recall the algorithms of some of them.

Weighted arithmetic average:

∑x f

where ∑ x f - the sum of the products of the magnitude of features and their frequencies (weights);

∑f- the total number of population units.

If frequencies (weights) are presented not as absolute values, but as relative ones, for example, in fractions of unity, in coefficients, then the algorithm will be like this:

X = ∑ x d

where d is frequency.

Geometric mean:

x k = n x 1 × x 2 × x 3 × … × x n = n P × x

where n is the number of options;

x - variants of feature x;

P – product sign.

The geometric mean is widely used to calculate the average rate of change in time series. The justified use of average values ​​in economic analysis and their semantic meaning are determined by the grouping of information used for calculations. This is due to the division of a significant number of objects and their information characteristics into qualitatively homogeneous groups depending on one or another attribute.

Average values ​​are no less important in the analysis process. Their “analytical power” lies in the generalization of the corresponding set of typical, homogeneous indicators, phenomena, and processes. They allow one to move from the individual to the general, from the random to the regular; without them, it is impossible to compare the studied characteristic across different populations, and it is impossible to characterize changes in a varying indicator over time; they allow one to abstract from the randomness of individual values ​​and fluctuations.

In analytical calculations, based on the need, various forms of averages are used: arithmetic average, weighted harmonic average, chronological average of a moment series, mode, median.

With the help of average values ​​(group and general), calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena, it is possible, as indicated above, to determine general trends and patterns in the development of economic processes.

4. Comparison is an analytical technique that allows us to identify the relationship between economic phenomena and processes, as well as the degree of efficiency in the use of resources. The comparison is based on the use of relative and average indicators. The use of this method assumes comparability of indicators.

Types of comparison:

Average actual data with planned data;

Average dynamics indicators;

Average indicators with industry averages, with competitors, etc.

In economic research, the comparison method has become widespread. It represents an assessment and analysis of the object under study through similar objects (logically comparable but heterogeneous in economic content, for example, profit: assets), since the digital values ​​of indicators acquire special meaning only when they are compared with other indicators. An important condition for comparing indicators is their comparability. The following can be used as a basis for comparison: indicators of previous years; business planning and regulatory values; achievements of science and advanced experience; performance levels of closest competitors; average indicators of research objects in a territorial context; options for management decisions; theoretically the maximum possible, potential and predicted indicators.

They are very informative comparisons of parallel and time series, allowing us to identify the form and features of the relationships between indicators. Thus, an increase in sales revenue with a simultaneous increase in the average cost of machinery and equipment for the same period will lead to an increase in their capital productivity only if the increase in the value of the active part of fixed production assets occurs at a slower pace. Educational vertical comparisons, allowing to study the structure of phenomena and processes and trends in their change.

Multidimensional comparisons in analysis are interesting, when several indicators (sometimes a wide range of them) are compared for several objects. Multivariate comparisons are used to comprehensively evaluate performance in competitive comparisons to establish financial risks. For such comparisons, special algorithms have been developed and used in practice (some of them are discussed below).

The role of comparisons in economic analysis is determined by the fact that this method allows you to achieve a number of important goals, for example, such as assessing the progress of current and future business plans, available opportunities to save resources, selecting optimal solution options, and assessing the degree of business risks.

Comparison is the earliest and most common method of analysis. It begins with the relationship of phenomena, i.e., with a synthetic act through which the compared phenomena are analyzed, distinguished into their common and different. The general that appears as a result of the analysis synthesizes the generalized phenomena. Comparison as a working method of cognition of a particular phenomenon, concept, relationship is used in many academic disciplines. In economic analysis, the method of comparison is considered one of the most important: the analysis begins with it. There are several forms of comparison: with the plan, with the past, with the best, with average data.

The main group of calculation methods that make it possible to analyze one phenomenon in comparison with others comes from the technique of comparison. There are temporal, dynamic, structural, spatial, basic and rating comparisons, operating with absolute and relative forward numbers.

1. The time method makes it possible to compare similar
indicators for a certain period of time.

2. Dynamic - allows you to compare the indicators of the current and several previous time periods. Dynamic analysis allows you to determine the trend, i.e. the main tendency of changes in the indicator, cleared of random influences and individual characteristics separate periods. With the help of a trend, possible values ​​in the future can be formed, and therefore predictive analysis can be carried out.

3. The structural method allows you to determine the composition and ratio of different indicators in a certain system at a certain point in time. Using this technique, the structure of economic phenomena and processes is studied by determining the specific weight in the general, whole and the relationship of the parts of the whole to each other.

4. Spatial comparison involves comparing similar indicators of structural divisions of an enterprise or a number of organizations.

5. The basic method is associated with a comparison of actual information with indicators taken as the basis (normative, planned, forecast, standard, project, industry average, regional average and other indicators).

The choice of basis for comparison when using the comparison method depends on the purpose of the study and the availability of information. This technique can serve to assess the current state of the object of study, achieve set goals, and search for reserves for increasing the efficiency of control systems. When implementing the comparison method, it is necessary to ensure the comparability of the compared data, which consists in the identity of the periods, methods and techniques for calculating indicators and the composition of the latter.

The technology for using the types of comparison considered (structural, temporal, dynamic, spatial, basic) includes the following stages:

1. collection of background information;

2. bringing it to a comparable form (if necessary);

3. calculation of deviations;

4. presentation of the analysis results in tabular and (or) graphical form and an explanatory note to them:

5. determination of the causes and factors that determined the occurrence of deviations.

One of the tasks of analyzing economic activity is, as noted above, a comprehensive assessment of the implementation of the business plan. This determines the importance of the method of comparing actual indicators with the plan. An indispensable condition for such a comparison must be comparability, similarity in content and structure of planned and reporting indicators (in terms of the range of planned and accounted objects; at prices, if
cost indicators are analyzed; according to the structure of product output and its sales, if the cost of industrial products and the level of production costs are analyzed). Deviations identified as a result of comparison of reported indicators with planned values ​​are the object of further analysis. To ensure comparability, estimated adjustments to planned indicators are allowed. Thus, it is necessary to recalculate the planned amount of costs according to cost items depending on the volume of products (works, services) produced and sold.

Comparison with the previous time, with the past, widely used in economic analysis, is manifested in the comparison of economic indicators of the current day, decade, month, quarter, year with similar previous periods.

Comparison with the past is associated with great difficulties, which are caused by significant violations of the conditions of comparability. It would be economically illiterate, for example, to compare gross, marketable and sold output over a number of years at current prices; A time series characterizing the level of costs for 3-5 or more years (and sometimes for adjacent years), built without the necessary adjustments, will also be incorrect. Comparison with the previous period requires recalculation of turnover into the same prices (most often into prices of the base period), recalculation of a number of cost items using a price index, tariffs, rates, and comparison with the pre-perestroika period makes it necessary to take into account a number of other factors: social, ethnographic, natural .

Comparison with the best - with the best work methods and indicators, best practices, new achievements of science and technology - can be carried out both within the enterprise and outside it. Within the enterprise, the performance indicators of the best workshops, sections, departments, and the most advanced workers are compared. An economic analysis of the indicators of a given enterprise by comparing them with the indicators of the best enterprises of a given system, operating in approximately the same conditions, and with the indicators of enterprises from other departments (owners) has a great effect.

Particularly noteworthy is the importance of using foreign experience. Exchange of best practices is one of the forms of economic communication between organizations. When studying the experience of enterprises in non-CIS countries, naturally, the unequal socio-economic differences in their functioning must be taken into account to some extent.

In economic analysis, the performance of an enterprise is often compared with the average performance of a production association (concern, joint stock company, limited liability partnership, etc.), but here, too, certain conditions and requirements must be met. If a consolidated link combines enterprises with different production profiles, then the average indicators should be calculated for each homogeneous group of enterprises.

Charts.

Graphical method - depicting indicators using tables and geometric shapes. Changes in the dynamics and structure of the analyzed objects are clearly depicted.

Among the primary methods of analysis, special attention should be paid to
be given to the graphical display of source information and the results of its processing. Most common charts and line graphs.

To display data from frequency tables as separate columns, use histograms. Often, bar charts display both numeric and non-numeric data; qualitative, variable. Such diagrams can be used, for example, when studying the output of workers at several enterprises. Moreover, bar charts are graphs that can be positioned both vertically and horizontally.

Individual values ​​relative to the total are displayed using pie charts. They are used to characterize the share of, for example, commercial and administrative expenses in total amount costs.

Linear graphs (frequency lines) are used to reflect data for a certain time period, as well as when it is necessary to compare several sets of data, when the graph shows not one broken line, but several.

The importance of using graphs in economic analysis is enormous. Firstly, they facilitate the study of the material, since they are visual, illustrative, and can signal unfavorable trends in the objects under study. Secondly, they have analytical significance, since they allow us to notice patterns in the relationships between indicators that are not always visible when using only numerical information. Thirdly, graphs can serve as a way to calculate the value of some indicator, for example, sales volume at a critical point during marginal analysis.

Compiling tables is a technique that is extremely widely used in economic analysis. This is due to the fact that the tables compactly and concentratedly, like a business summary, reveal in the language of numbers not only the initial information, but also the calculation algorithms and their results. They essentially reflect the analyst’s opinion about the business situation that requires attention from managers at the appropriate level of management.

In tables it is customary to place: first absolute indicators, and then relative ones; initial information earlier than the calculated indicators; first the factor indicators, then the effective indicators: then - the sequential actions of the factor analysis and the balance of deviations, the summary results of the analysis.

The role of tables is so great that it allows us to talk about textless analysis in the presence of professionally compiled tables.

Question No. 3. Method of accounting and financial analysis

1. Balance sheet method.

Used to study indicators that are functionally dependent. Reflects the algebraic sum of indicators, and its condition is the equality of the totals of the right and left sides of the balance sheet.

The balance sheet method is widely used in accounting, statistics and planning. It is also used when analyzing the economic activities of enterprises (where there is a strictly functional dependence). At industrial enterprises, for example, using this method (along with and together with others) the use of working time (total working time), machine tools and production equipment (production capacity), the movement of raw materials, semi-finished products, finished products, and financial situation are analyzed.

The balance method is widely used to measure the influence of factors on a general indicator in an additive relationship. It is based on the compilation of balances, which are an analytical formula for the equality of the results of its right and left sides. As an auxiliary tool, the balance sheet method is used to check the initial information on which the analysis is based, as well as to monitor the correctness of the analytical calculations themselves. The use of the method is possible if there is a strict presentation of the results of analysis using the balance method, as a functional relationship between indicators and balance sheet results. The form is usually tabular.

Traditional methods of processing and checking initial information include balance. It is also used to measure the influence of additively related factors on a performance indicator. In the additive form of dependence, the generalizing indicator is an algebraic sum of the quotients. Based on the balance method, a method of factor analysis has been developed, such as proportional division, or equity participation.

The balance method has found wide application in the analysis of an organization's provision with labor, material and financial resources and the completeness of their use, in the study of the compliance of means of payment with payment obligations, etc. As a technical technique, the balance method is used to check the correctness of analytical calculations by compiling a balance of deviations.

2. Horizontal method (temporary)

Comparison of each reporting item with the previous period.

3. Vertical (structural).

Identifies the impact of each reporting item on the result.

4. Trend analysis.

Determination of the main trend in the dynamics of indicators.

5.Analysis of financial ratios.

Calculation of indicators based on reporting data and determination of their relationship.

6. Factor analysis is the study of the influence of individual factors (reasons) on performance indicators.

A factor is a condition that determines economic processes or phenomena. the result of economic activity is influenced by many interdependent factors. The significance of these factors and their assessment makes it possible to influence the performance indicators of economic activity.

The meaning of financial analysis is the construction of mathematical models that reflect the relationship between actual and performance indicators.

Types of financial analysis:

Deterministic (functional) and stochastic. They reflect a direct relationship and an approximate estimate.

Direct and reverse (from general to specific and back)

Single stage and multi stage

Statistical and dynamic

Retrospective and prospective

Create deterministic functional system means to present the object under study in the form of models of different types:

1. additive is the sum of indicators

2. multiplicative - this is the product of factors

3. multiple model is a ratio of factors

4. mixed models are a combination of all models

There are techniques for constructing deterministic factor models to measure multiple reasons that influence the result:

1. The method of lengthening a factor model is the presentation of one indicator in the form of two or more indicators.

2. Factor model expansion method - this is achieved by multiplying factors by one or more new indicators

3. The method of reducing a factor model is dividing the factors by another indicator.

Stochastic or correlation analysis is the study of factors that are in an incomplete or probabilistic relationship with a performance indicator.

Stages of stochastic modeling:

1. setting goals, determining effective and factor characteristics

2. clarification and verification of the required sample size

3. building a regression model of the object

4. calculation of regression equation parameters

5. Economic interpretation of the use of models

Question No. 4. Economic and mathematical methods of analysis

Method of mathematical analysis:

Differentiation

Integration

Logarithm

Methods of mathematical statistics make it possible to study the probabilistic relationship between indicators and other dependencies in numerical sets (method of dispersion, correlation, regression). Probability theory as a method of mathematical statistics studies the forecasting of economic indicators.

Mathematical programming methods are methods of linear, nonlinear and dynamic programming. Serve to solve problems of optimizing the economic activity of planned resources.

Economic methods are a synthesis of methods of economics, mathematics, statistics, which make it possible to present economic processes as a form of relationship between costs and results.

The method of economic cybernetics - analyzes economic phenomena in the form of complex systems from the point of view of control laws and the availability of information.

Question No. 5. Heuristic methods

Heuristic methods are associated with a creative search for solutions to economic problems. Heuristic methods of analysis represent special techniques for collecting and processing information, based on logical justification and professional judgment of a group of specialists.

The brainstorming method is the generation of new ideas by specialists of various profiles. At the first stage, 400-500 ideas are put forward in 40 minutes by different specialists. Then the optimal ones are selected.

The method of control questions is a method of leading questions that can lead to the solution of a given problem. 9 questions are included, for example:

What can be transformed in an object?

What can be improved? etc.

The collective notebook method is the independent accumulation of ideas by each participant. After that, these ideas of joint discussion are systematized.

Morphological method – studies the structural relationships of the object of analysis. Provides for the construction of morphological matrices.

In modern developed information systems, machine information processing involves solving computational problems sequentially and parallelly in time. This is possible if there is a certain organization of the computing process. A computing task generated by a source of computing tasks makes requests to the computing system as a solution is needed. The organization of the computational process involves determining the sequence of problem solving and the implementation of calculations. The solution sequence is given based on their information interconnection when the results of solving one problem are used as input data for solving another. The decision process is determined by the adopted computational algorithm. Computational algorithms must be combined in accordance with the required technological sequence for solving problems into a computational graph of an information processing system. Therefore, in a computing system, we can distinguish a dispatch system, which determines the organization of the computing process, and a computer (possibly more than one) that provides information processing.

Information processes in automated organizational management systems are implemented using computers and other technical means. As computer technology develops, so do the forms of its use. There are various ways to access and communicate with a computer. Individual and collective access to computing resources depends on the degree of their concentration and organizational forms of functioning. Centralized forms of using computing tools that existed before the mass use of personal computers involved their concentration in one place and the organization of information and computing centers (ICCs) for individual and collective use (ICCCP).

The activities of the ICTs and IVTsKP were characterized by the processing of large volumes of information, the use of several medium and large computers, and qualified personnel for equipment maintenance and software development. The centralized use of computing and other technical means made it possible to organize their reliable operation, systematic loading and qualified maintenance. Centralized information processing, along with a number of positive aspects (high load and high-performance use of equipment, qualified personnel of operators, programmers, engineers, computer system designers, etc.) had a number of negative features, generated primarily by the separation end user(economist, planner, standard setter, etc.) from the technological process of information processing.

Decentralized forms of using computing resources began to take shape in the second half of the 80s, when the economic sphere had the opportunity to move to the mass use of personal computers (PCs). Decentralization involves the placement of PCs in places where information is generated and consumed, where autonomous points for its processing are created. These include subscriber points (AP) and automated workstations.

Processing of economic information on a computer is carried out, as a rule, centrally, and on mini- and macro-computers - in places where primary information arises, where automated workplaces of specialists of one or another management service are organized (department of logistics and sales, department of the chief technologist, design department, accounting department, planning department, etc.).

When processing economic information on a computer, arithmetic and logical operations are performed. Arithmetic operations of data processing in a computer include all types of mathematical operations determined by the program. Logical operations provide appropriate ordering of data in arrays (primary, intermediate, constant, variables) that are subject to further arithmetic processing. A significant place in logical operations is occupied by such types of sorting work as ordering, distribution, selection, sampling, and merging. In the course of solving problems on a computer, in accordance with the machine program, resultant summaries are generated and printed by machine. Printing summaries may be accompanied by a replication procedure if a document with the resulting information needs to be provided to several users.

Electronic information processing technology is a human-machine process of executing interrelated operations that occur in an established sequence with the aim of converting initial (primary) information into resultant information. An operation is a complex of technological actions performed, as a result of which information is transformed. Technological operations are varied in complexity, purpose, implementation technique, and are performed on various equipment by many performers. In the context of electronic data processing, operations performed automatically on machines and devices that read data, perform operations according to a given program in automatic mode, with human participation, or retain the functions of control, analysis and regulation for the user, predominate.

The construction of the technological process is determined by the following factors: the characteristics of the information being processed, its volume, the requirements for urgency and accuracy of processing, the types, quantity and characteristics of the technical means used. They form the basis for organizing technology, which includes establishing a list, sequence and methods of performing operations, the order of work of specialists and automation equipment, organizing workplaces, establishing time regulations for interaction, etc. The organization of the technological process must ensure its efficiency, complexity, reliable operation, and high quality of work. This is achieved by using a systems engineering approach to technology design and solving economic problems. At the same time, there is a comprehensive interconnected consideration of all factors, ways, methods of constructing technology, the use of elements of typification and standardization, as well as the unification of technological process diagrams.

The technology of automated information processing is based on the following principles of integration of data processing and the ability of users to work in the operating conditions of automated systems for centralized storage and collective use of data (data banks):

distribution of data processing based on developed transmission systems; rational combination of centralized and decentralized management and organization of computer systems;

modeling and formalized description of data, procedures for their transformation, functions and jobs of performers;

taking into account the specific features of the object in which machine information processing is implemented.

There are two main types of organization of technological processes: subject-based and operational.

The subject type of technology organization involves the creation of parallel operating technological lines, specializing in information processing and solving specific sets of problems (labor and wage accounting, supply and sales, financial transactions etc.) and organizing operational data processing within the line.

The operational (flow) type of construction of a technological process provides for the sequential transformation of processed information according to technology, presented in the form of a continuous sequence of successive operations performed automatically. This approach to building technology turned out to be acceptable when organizing the work of subscriber points and automated workstations.

The main stage of the information technology process is associated with solving functional problems on a computer. In-machine technology for solving problems on a computer, as a rule, implements the following typical processes for transforming economic information: the formation of new arrays of information; organizing information arrays; selecting some parts of a record from the array, merging and splitting arrays; making changes to the array; performing arithmetic operations on details within records, within arrays; over records of several arrays. The solution of each individual problem or set of problems requires the following operations: entering a program for the machine solution of the problem and placing it in the computer memory; input of initial data; logical and arithmetic control of entered information; correction of erroneous data; layout of input arrays and sorting of entered information; calculations using a given algorithm; obtaining output arrays of information; editing output forms; displaying information on the screen and computer media; printing tables with output data. The choice of one or another technology option is determined primarily by both the space-time features of the tasks being solved, frequency, urgency, requirements for the speed of communication between the user and the computer, and the operating capabilities of the technical means - primarily the computer.

The storage and accumulation of information is caused by its repeated use, the use of permanent information, and the need to compile primary data before processing it.

Information is stored on computer media in the form of information arrays, where the data is arranged according to the grouping criteria established during the design process.

Data retrieval is the selection of the necessary data from stored information, including the search for information that is subject to correction or replacement of a request for the necessary information.

Information technology is a process aimed at obtaining information that ensures the achievement of management goals. It consists of methods, stages, operations, actions, software and hardware that collectively ensure the collection, processing, storage and display of information. There are three types of information technologies - subject, supporting, functional:

— subject technology is a sequence of procedures (actions) performed for the purpose of processing information without the involvement of computer technology;

— enabling technology represents special tools in the hands of the user, software tools focused on a certain class of problems, but not equipped with specific technological rules for solving them;

— functional technology is a supporting technology filled with specific data and rules for their processing from a certain subject area.

The technical basis of information technology is the means computer equipment, designed for processing and converting information.

Types of information technologies

Information technologies for data processing are designed to solve well-structured problems for which the necessary input data are available, algorithms and others are known. standard procedures their processing. The technology ensures that the bulk of work is performed automatically with minimal human intervention. Technology procedures: collecting and recording data, transmitting information, storing information, processing data, creating reports, making decisions.

The technological process of data processing includes:

preparatory stage - preparation for solving the problem (creating reference books, entering the necessary permanent data into the computer memory, adjusting the composition of standard transactions, chart of accounts, etc.);

the initial stage is associated with the operations of collecting, registering and placing documents in base arrays.

The main, final stage of work is associated with obtaining the necessary reporting forms. Working arrays are extracted from the computer database, subject to grouping according to the corresponding key characteristics, calculation of final data based on them, and subsequent printing of the received reporting documents.

Management information technologies are aimed at meeting the information needs of employees related to decision making. The technology provides for assessing the planned state of the control object, the level of deviations from the planned state, identifying the causes of deviations, and analyzing possible solutions and actions. The information provided contains information about the past, present and probable future of the enterprise (company) and takes the form of regular or special management reports.

Information telecommunication technologies

The basis of the infrastructure necessary for the functioning of a unified enterprise management system is an information computer network. The principles of network operation include the following: a) development of elements information network at all levels of its hierarchy according to a single plan under general centralized leadership; b) use at each stage of open, proven, standardized solutions and approaches from the world's leading manufacturers of telecommunication systems and tools; c) implementation of a functional full range of technical solutions that implement one of the structural or functional system-forming elements.

An information computer network creates an infrastructure of a single information space that allows you to combine the existing and future needs of an enterprise for access to all types of information services. Such infrastructure includes: local area networks; telephone networks; video surveillance and industrial television systems; video conferencing; security and life support systems; satellite communication lines; communication lines with global networks, including the Internet.

Business process management technologies

Some corporate information systems have built-in business process management functions. In this case, the functions of subject subsystems (planning, accounting, generation of documents and reports) are initially integrated with process management capabilities (setting document routes in the organization, monitoring their passage, analyzing work flows and documents). This approach is implemented in the Parus control system. This is an enterprise-level system based on the Oracl database and includes financial, logistics and production management subsystems.

An economic information system is a set of internal and external flows of direct and feedback information communication of an economic object, methods, tools, specialists involved in the process of information processing and the development of management decisions.

The information system is a system of information services for employees of management services and performs technological functions for the accumulation, storage, transmission and processing of information. It develops, is formed and functions in accordance with the regulations determined by the methods and structure of management activities adopted at a specific economic entity, and implements the goals and objectives facing it.

The current level of informatization of society predetermines the use of the latest technical, technological, and software tools in various information systems of economic objects.

An automated information system is a set of information, economic and mathematical methods and models, technical, software, technological tools and specialists, designed for processing information and making management decisions.

The use of automated information systems is especially important in managing the financial department of a company. The use of automated information systems allows you to: optimize work plans, quickly develop decisions, clearly maneuver financial resources, etc.

The main factors that determine the results of the creation and functioning of automated information technologies and informatization processes are: active human participation in the system of automation of information processing and management decision-making; interpretation information activities as one of the types of business; the presence of a scientifically based software and technology platform implemented at the economic facility; creation and implementation of scientific applied developments in the field of information in accordance with user requirements; formation of conditions for organizational and functional interaction and its mathematical, model, system and software; formulation and solution of specific practical problems in the field of management, taking into account specified performance criteria.

Home integral part An automated information system is information technology.

Automated information technology is a systemically organized set of methods and means for solving management problems for the implementation of operations of collecting, registering, transferring, accumulating, searching, processing and protecting information based on the use of developed software, computer and communication tools used, as well as methods using which information is offered to clients.

There are various classifications of economic information systems, each of which pursues specific goals. Important classification criteria are: the scale of the system and the integration of its components, the degree of structure of the tasks being solved, the complexity of processing algorithms and others:

— according to the scope of application, information systems are distinguished between accounting, banking, insurance, tax and others;

— according to the degree of automation of information processes - manual, automatic, automated;

- by the nature of the problems being solved - systems developed to solve structured (formalized) problems, unstructured (non-formalized) problems and partially structured problems (for most of the problems being solved, not all elements and the relationships between them are known);

- by processing mode - information systems operating in batch and interactive modes. Batch technology is used mainly in centralized economic information systems. Features of the technology: information is collected through one communication channel or input device; the process of preparing information is separated from the actual processing; information is processed without influence on it from the user; the processing process is determined by stages and each of them has its own information and software.

The processing technological process is a route consisting of a sequence of stages: input, control, sorting, merging, grouping, copying, archiving, direct processing, issuing information. The disadvantages of the technology are: irrational use of resources, lack of user interaction.

In the interactive processing mode, it provides an interactive way for the user to communicate with the computer. Advantages of the technology: tasks can be solved in parallel, system throughput increases, it is possible to change the sequence of information processing stages. Online information systems are used in networks, teleprocessing systems, and systems operating in real time.

— according to the type of software used, different authors classify information systems differently, and there is no single point of view. Some works propose to classify software in accordance with the types of equipment used, in others - according to the functions performed.

Based on their structural characteristics, systems are distinguished between centralized, decentralized and shared use systems. The degree of centralization or decentralization depends on the number and importance of decisions made at the lower level, on the organization of quantitative control over the work of the lower level. The disadvantages of a centralized system are: poor mobility and modifiability, high processing time. Decentralization ensures priority and simplification of decisions made, stimulating employee initiative;

— according to the scope of operation, systems are government, commercial, industrial, managerial and others;

— according to the level of control automation, automated control systems, information and reference systems, and information retrieval systems are distinguished;

— according to the operating mode of a complex of technical means, systems can be discrete and continuous;

— based on the nature of integration of functional tasks, systems, subsystems, and individual tasks are distinguished.

The emergence of new information technologies and the development of intelligent technical means make it possible to create information systems with a high degree of intellectualization, which is manifested in: expanding the functions of system-wide software; in the development of new application systems with elements of expert systems; in the organization of technological processes of planning, management and control of enterprise activities in real time; in the intellectualization of the technical platform (multifunctional devices, multiprotocol adapters, virtualization of memory, communication channels, etc.).

2. MICROPROCESSORS, PURPOSE AND CLASSIFICATION

A microprocessor (MP) is a software-controlled electronic digital device designed to process digital information and control of the process of this processing, performed on one or more integrated circuits with a high degree of integration of electronic elements.

In 1970, Marchian Edward Hoff of Intel designed an integrated circuit similar in function to central processor mainframe computer - the first microprocessor Intel-4004, which was released for sale in 1971.

This was a real breakthrough, because the Intel-4004 MP, measuring less than 3 cm, was more productive than the giant ENIAC machine. True, it worked much slower and could only process 4 bits of information at a time (mainframe processors processed 16 or 32 bits simultaneously), but the first MP was tens of thousands of times cheaper.

The crystal was a 4-bit processor with a classical Harvard-type computer architecture and was manufactured using advanced p-channel MOS technology with design standards of 10 microns. Electrical diagram The device consisted of 2300 transistors. The MP operated at a clock frequency of 750 kHz with a command cycle duration of 10.8 μs. The i4004 chip had an address stack (a program counter and three LIFO stack registers), a RON block (serial memory registers or a register file - RF), a 4-bit parallel ALU, an accumulator, a command register with a command decoder and a control circuit, as well as a communication circuit with external devices. All these functional units were interconnected by a 4-bit SD. The instruction memory reached 4 KB (for comparison: the memory volume of a minicomputer in the early 70s rarely exceeded 16 KB), and the RF CPU had 16 4-bit registers, which could also be used as 8 8-bit registers. This organization of RONs was retained in subsequent MPs from Intel. Three stack registers provided three levels of subroutine nesting. The i4004 MP was mounted in a plastic or metal-ceramic DIP (Dual In-line Package) housing with only 16 pins.

His instruction system included only 46 instructions.

At the same time, the crystal had very limited input/output facilities, and the command system lacked logical data processing operations (AND, OR, EXCLUSIVE OR), and therefore they had to be implemented using special subroutines. The i4004 module did not have the ability to stop (HALT commands) and handle interrupts.

The processor command cycle consisted of 8 clock cycles of the master oscillator. There was a multiplexed SHA (address bus)/SD (data bus), the 12-bit address was transmitted over 4-bits.

On April 1, 1972, Intel began shipping the industry's first 8-bit device, the i8008. The crystal was manufactured using p-channel MOS technology with design standards of 10 microns and contained 3500 transistors. The processor operated at a frequency of 500 kHz with a machine cycle duration of 20 μs (10 periods of the master oscillator).

Unlike its predecessors, the MP had a Princeton-type computer architecture, and allowed the use of a combination of ROM and RAM as memory.

Compared to the i4004, the number of RONs decreased from 16 to 8, and two registers were used to store the address for indirect memory addressing (a technology limitation - the RON block, similar to the 4004 and 4040 crystals in the MP 8008, was implemented as dynamic memory). The duration of the machine cycle was almost halved (from 8 to 5 states). To synchronize work with slow devices The READY signal has been entered.

The command system consisted of 65 instructions. The MP could address 16 KB of memory. Its performance compared to four-bit MPs has increased by 2.3 times. On average, about 20 medium-integration circuits were required to interface the processor with memory and I/O devices.

The capabilities of p-channel technology for creating complex high-performance MPs were almost exhausted, so the “direction of the main blow” was transferred to n-channel MOS technology.

On April 1, 1974, the Intel 8080 MP was presented to the attention of all interested parties. Thanks to the use of p-MOS technology with design standards of 6 microns, it was possible to place 6 thousand transistors on the chip. The processor clock frequency was increased to 2 MHz, and the command cycle duration was already 2 μs. The amount of memory addressable by the processor has been increased to 64 KB. By using a 40-pin package, it was possible to separate the ShA and ShD, the total number of microcircuits required to build a system in a minimum configuration was reduced to 6 (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Intel 8080 microprocessor.

In the Russian Federation, a stack pointer was introduced, which is actively used when processing interrupts, as well as two software-inaccessible registers for internal transfers. The RON block was implemented on static memory chips. The exclusion of the battery from the RF and its introduction into the ALU simplified the internal bus control circuit.

What is new in the MP architecture is the use of a multi-level vector interrupt system. This technical solution made it possible to increase the total number of interrupt sources to 256 (before the advent of LSI interrupt controllers, the scheme for generating interrupt vectors required the use of up to 10 additional medium-integration chips). The i8080 introduced a direct memory access (DMA) mechanism (as previously in the IBM System 360 mainframe computers, etc.).

The PDP opened up the green light for the use of such complex devices in microcomputers as magnetic disk drives and tape drives and CRT displays, which turned the microcomputer into a full-fledged computing system.

The company's tradition, starting from the first crystal, has been to produce not a separate CPU chip, but a family of LSIs designed for shared use.

Based on the number of large integrated circuits (LSI) in a microprocessor set, they are distinguished single-chip, multi-chip and multi-chip sectional microprocessors.

Processors of even the simplest computers have a complex functional structure, contain a large number of electronic elements and many branched connections. It is necessary to change the processor structure so that complete circuit diagram or its parts had a number of elements and connections compatible with the capabilities of the LSI. At the same time, microprocessors acquire an internal backbone architecture, i.e., all the main functional blocks (arithmetic-logical, working registers, stack, interrupts, interface, control and synchronization, etc.) are connected to a single internal information backbone.

To justify the classification of microprocessors by the number of LSIs, it is necessary to distribute all hardware units of the processor between the main three functional parts: operating, control and interface. The complexity of the operating and control parts of the processor is determined by their capacity, the instruction system and the requirements for the interrupt system; complexity of the interface part with the capacity and connectivity of other computer devices (memory, external devices, sensors and actuators, etc.). The processor interface contains several dozen information buses for data (SD), addresses (AS) and control (CS).

Single-chip microprocessors are obtained by implementing all processor hardware in the form of a single LSI or VLSI (ultra-large-scale chip). integrated circuit). As the degree of integration of elements on the chip and the number of pins on the package increase, the parameters of single-chip microprocessors improve. However, the capabilities of single-chip microprocessors are limited by the hardware resources of the chip and package. To obtain a multi-chip microprocessor, it is necessary to split its logical structure into functionally complete parts and implement them in the form of a LSI (VLSI). The functional completeness of the LSI of a multi-chip microprocessor means that its parts perform predetermined functions and can operate autonomously.

In Fig. Figure 2a shows the functional breakdown of the processor structure when creating a three-chip microprocessor (dashed lines) containing an operational LSI (OP), a control LSI (CM) and an interface LSI (IP) processors.

Rice. 2 Functional structure of the processor (a) and its partition for implementing the processor in the form of a set of sectional LSIs

The operating processor is used to process data, the control processor performs the functions of sampling, decoding and calculating operand addresses and also generates sequences of microinstructions. The autonomy of operation and high speed of the LSI UP allows you to select commands from memory at a higher speed than the speed of their execution by the LSI OP. At the same time, a queue of commands that have not yet been executed is formed in the CP, and the data that will be required by the CP in the next work cycles is also prepared in advance. This forward fetching of instructions saves the OP time on waiting for the operands necessary to execute program instructions. The interface processor allows you to connect memory and peripherals to the microprocessor; it is essentially a complex controller for input/output devices. LSI IP also performs the functions of a direct memory access channel.

Commands selected from memory are recognized and executed by each part of the microprocessor autonomously, and therefore a mode of simultaneous operation of all MP LSIs can be ensured, i.e. pipeline stream mode of execution of a sequence of program commands (execution of a sequence with a small time shift). This mode of operation significantly increases the performance of the microprocessor.

Multi-chip sectional microprocessors are obtained when parts (sections) of the logical structure of the processor are implemented in the form of an LSI with a functional division of it by vertical planes (Fig. 2,b). To build multi-bit microprocessors with parallel connection sections of the LSI, “docking” means are added to them.

To create high-performance multi-bit microprocessors, so much hardware is required that is not implemented in available LSIs that it may also be necessary to functionally divide the microprocessor structure into horizontal planes. As a result of the considered functional division of the microprocessor structure into functionally and structurally complete parts, conditions are created for the implementation of each of them in the form of a LSI. All of them form a set of sectional LSI MP.

Thus, the microprocessor section is an LSI designed to process several bits of data or perform certain control operations. The sectionality of the MP LSI determines the possibility of “increasing” the bit capacity of the processed data or increasing the complexity of the microprocessor control devices when a larger number of LSIs are connected “in parallel.”

Single-chip and three-chip LSI MPs, as a rule, are manufactured on the basis of microelectronic technologies of unipolar semiconductor devices, and multi-chip sectional LSI MP based on the technology of bipolar semiconductor devices. The use of multi-chip microprocessor high-speed bipolar LSIs, which have functional completeness with a low physical bit depth of the processed data and are mounted in a package with a large number of pins, makes it possible to organize branching communications in the processor, as well as implement conveyor principles of information processing to increase its performance.

According to their purpose, they distinguish between universal and specialized microprocessors.

Universal microprocessors can be used to solve a wide range of different problems. At the same time, their effective performance weakly depends on the problematic specifics of the tasks being solved. MP specialization, i.e. its problem-oriented focus on the accelerated execution of certain functions allows for dramatic increases in effective productivity when solving only certain tasks.

Among the specialized microprocessors, one can distinguish various microcontrollers aimed at performing complex sequences of logical operations, mathematical processors designed to improve performance when performing arithmetic operations through, for example, matrix methods for their execution, processors for data processing in various application areas, etc. With the help of specialized MPs, you can effectively solve new complex problems parallel processing data. For example, convolution allows for more complex mathematical signal processing than commonly used correlation methods. The latter mainly come down to comparing just two series of data: input, transmitted by the waveform, and fixed reference, and determining their similarity. Convolution makes it possible to match signals of varying shapes in real time by comparing them with various reference signals, which, for example, can effectively distinguish a useful signal from a background of noise.

The developed single-chip convolvers are used in pattern recognition devices in cases where the data collection capabilities exceed the system's ability to process this data.

Based on the type of input signals processed, digital and analog microprocessors are distinguished. Microprocessors themselves are digital devices, but may have built-in analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters. Therefore, input analog signals are transmitted to the MP through a converter in digital form, processed, and after being converted back to analog form, they are sent to the output. From an architectural point of view, such microprocessors are analog functional signal converters and are called analog microprocessors. They perform the functions of any analog circuit(eg, oscillating, modulating, shifting, filtering, encoding and decoding signals in real time, etc., replacing complex circuits consisting of operational amplifiers, inductors, capacitors, etc.). At the same time, the use of an analog microprocessor significantly increases the accuracy of processing analog signals and their reproducibility, and also expands the functionality due to software “tuning” of the digital part of the microprocessor to various signal processing algorithms.

Typically, single-chip analog MPs have several analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion channels. In an analog microprocessor, the bit depth of the processed data reaches 24 bits or more, and great importance is given to increasing the speed of arithmetic operations.

A distinctive feature of analog microprocessors is the ability to process large amounts of numerical data, i.e., to perform addition and multiplication operations at high speed, if necessary, even by eliminating interrupts and transitions. The analog signal, converted to digital form, is processed in real time and transmitted to the output, usually in analog form through a digital-to-analog converter. Moreover, according to Kotelnikov’s theorem, the quantization frequency of the analog signal should be twice the upper frequency of the signal.

Comparison of digital microprocessors is made by comparing the time they perform lists of operations. Comparison of analog microprocessors is made by the number of equivalent links of analog-digital filters of second-order recursive filters. The performance of an analog microprocessor is determined by its ability to quickly perform multiplication operations: the faster the multiplication is performed, the greater the equivalent number of filter stages in the analog converter and the more complex the conversion algorithm digital signals can be set in the microprocessor.

One of the directions for further improvement of analog microprocessors is to increase their versatility and flexibility. Therefore, along with an increase in the speed of processing large amounts of digital data, means will be developed to support advanced computational processes for processing digital information through the implementation of hardware program interruption units and program transitions.

Based on the nature of the temporary organization of work, microprocessors are divided into synchronous and asynchronous.

Synchronous microprocessors are microprocessors in which the beginning and end of the execution of operations are set by the control device (the execution time of operations in this case does not depend on the type of commands being executed and the values ​​of the operands).

Asynchronous microprocessors allow the start of each subsequent operation to be determined by the signal of the actual completion of the previous operation. For more efficient use of each device of a microprocessor system, electronic circuits are introduced into asynchronously operating devices to ensure autonomous operation of the devices. Having finished working on any operation, the device generates a request signal, indicating its readiness to perform the next operation. In this case, the role of a natural distributor of work is assumed by the memory, which, in accordance with a predetermined priority, fulfills requests from other devices to provide them with command information and data.

Based on the organization of the structure of microprocessor systems, microcomputers are distinguished between single- and multi-line.

In single-line microcomputers, all devices have the same interface and are connected to a single information highway through which data codes, addresses and control signals are transmitted.

In multi-line microcomputers, devices are connected in groups to their information highway. This allows for simultaneous transmission of information signals along several (or all) highways. This organization of systems complicates their design, but increases productivity.

Based on the number of programs executed, single- and multi-program microprocessors are distinguished.

In single-program microprocessors, only one program is executed. The transition to the execution of another program occurs after the completion of the current program.

In multi- or multi-program microprocessors, several (usually several dozen) programs are executed simultaneously. The organization of multiprogram operation of microprocessor control systems makes it possible to monitor the status and control of a large number of sources or receivers of information.

3. EXCEL TABLE PROCESSOR: USING FUNCTIONS

The Excel spreadsheet also supports general functionality of word processors, such as the use of macros, diagramming, autocorrection and spell checking, the use of styles, templates, data auto-formatting, data exchange with other applications, the presence of a developed help system, printing with customizable settings and other services possibilities.

It is advisable to use the Excel spreadsheet processor to create tables in cases where complex calculations, sorting, filtering, statistical analysis arrays, constructing diagrams based on them.

Let us describe the main key concepts used when working with table processor Excel.

A workbook is the main Excel document. It is stored in a file with a random name and xls extension. When you create or open a workbook, its contents are presented in a separate window. Each workbook contains 16 worksheets by default.

Sheets are designed for creating and storing tables, charts, and macros. The sheet consists of 256 columns and 16384 rows.

A cell is the smallest structural unit for storing data within a worksheet. Each cell can contain data in the form of text, numeric values, formulas, or formatting options. When you enter data, Excel automatically recognizes the type of data and determines the list of operations that can be performed on it. Based on their content, cells are divided into source (influencing) and dependent. The latter contain formulas that have links to other table cells. Consequently, the values ​​of dependent cells are determined by the contents of other (influencing) table cells. The cell selected by the pointer is called the active or current cell.

The cell address is used to determine the location of the cell in the table. There are two ways to write cell addresses:

1. By indicating the column letter and row number of the table, which can be preceded by a $ sign indicating absolute addressing. This is the default method and is called A1 style.

2. By indicating the row number and column number following the letters R and C, respectively. Row and column numbers may be enclosed in square brackets to indicate relative addressing.

A formula is a mathematical representation of calculations performed on table data. The formula begins with an equal sign or mathematical operator and is written in a table cell. The result of the formula is the calculated value. This value is automatically written to the cell in which the formula is located.

A function is a mathematical notation that specifies the execution of certain computational operations. A function consists of a name and one or more arguments, enclosed in parentheses.

The cell pointer is a frame that selects the active table cell. The pointer is moved using the mouse or cursor keys.

A list is a specially designed table that can be worked with as a database. In such a table, each column represents a field, and each row represents a record in a database file.

Functions in Excel are used to perform standard calculations in workbooks. The values ​​that are used to evaluate functions are called arguments. The values ​​returned by functions as a response are called results. In addition to built-in functions, you can use custom functions in calculations that are created using Excel tools.

To use a function, you must enter it as part of a formula in a worksheet cell. The sequence in which the symbols used in the formula must appear is called function syntax. All functions use the same basic syntax rules. If you violate the syntax rules, Excel will display a message indicating that there is an error in the formula.

If a function appears at the very beginning of a formula, it must be preceded by an equal sign, as in any other formula.

Function arguments are written in parentheses immediately after the function name and separated from each other by the semicolon " ; ". Parentheses allow Excel to determine where the argument list begins and ends. Arguments must be placed inside the parentheses. Remember that when writing a function, there must be opening and closing brackets, and you should not insert spaces between the function name and the brackets.

You can use numbers, text, boolean values, arrays, error values ​​or references. Arguments can be either constants or formulas. In turn, these formulas may contain other functions. Functions that are an argument to another function are called nested. IN Excel formulas You can use up to seven levels of nesting of functions.

The specified input parameters must have valid values ​​for the given argument. Some functions may have optional arguments that may not be present when the function's value is calculated.

For ease of use, functions in Excel are divided into categories: database and list management functions, date and time functions, DDE/External functions, engineering functions, financial, informational, logical, browsing and linking functions. In addition, the following categories of functions are present: statistical, text and mathematical.

With the help text functions It is possible to process text: extract characters, find the ones you need, write characters to a strictly defined place in the text, and much more.

By using date and time functions you can solve almost any problem related to date or time (for example, determining age, calculating work experience, determining the number of working days in any period of time).

Logic functions help create complex formulas that, depending on the fulfillment of certain conditions, will perform various types of data processing.

Excel is widely represented mathematical functions. For example, you can perform various operations with matrices: multiply, find the inverse, transpose.

By using statistical functions it is possible to carry out statistical modeling. In addition, it is possible to use elements of factor and regression analysis.

Excel can solve optimization problems and use Fourier analysis. In particular, Excel implements a fast Fourier transform algorithm, with which you can build the amplitude and phase spectrum.

Excel contains over 400 built-in functions. Therefore, it is not always convenient to directly enter the names of functions and the values ​​of input parameters into the formula from the keyboard. Excel has a special tool for working with functions - Function Wizard
. When working with this tool, you are first asked to select the desired function from a list of categories, and then a dialog box prompts you to enter input values.
Maloney E, Nossiter J. Microsoft Word 2000. - M.: Dialectics, 2001. THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION AND DATA Presentation (coding) of information. Abstract languages ​​and their characteristics

The technology of electronic processing of economic information includes a human-machine process of executing interrelated operations that occur in an established sequence in order to transform initial (primary) information into resultant information. An operation is a complex of technological actions performed, as a result of which information is transformed. Technological operations are varied in complexity, purpose, implementation technique, and are performed on various equipment by many performers. In the context of electronic data processing, operations are performed automatically on machines and devices that read data, perform operations according to a given program automatically without human intervention or retain the functions of control, analysis and regulation for the user.

The construction of the technological process is determined by the following factors: the characteristics of the economic information being processed, its volume, requirements for the urgency and accuracy of processing, the types, quantity and characteristics of the technical means used. They form the basis for organizing technology, which includes establishing a list, sequence and methods of performing operations, the order of work of specialists and automation equipment, organizing workplaces, establishing time regulations for interaction, etc. The organization of the technological process must ensure its efficiency, complexity, reliable operation, and high quality of work. This is achieved by using a systems engineering approach to designing technology for solving economic problems. At the same time, there is a comprehensive interconnected consideration of all factors, ways, methods of constructing technology, the use of elements of typification and standardization, as well as the unification of technological process diagrams.

The technology for automated processing of economic information is based on the following principles:

Integration of data processing and the ability of users to work in the operating conditions of automated systems for centralized storage and collective use of data (data banks);

Distributed data processing based on developed transmission systems;

Rational combination of centralized and decentralized management and organization of computer systems;

Modeling and formalized description of data, procedures for their transformation, functions and jobs of performers;

Taking into account the specific features of the object in which machine processing of economic information is implemented.

There are two main types of organization of technological processes: subject-based and operational.

Subject typeorganizing technology involves the creation of parallel operating technological lines that specialize in processing information and solving specific sets of problems (labor and wage accounting, supply and sales, financial transactions, etc.) and organizing operational data processing within the line.

Operational (flow) type the construction of a technological process involves the sequential transformation of processed information, according to technology, presented in the form of a continuous sequence of successive operations performed automatically. This approach to building technology turned out to be acceptable when organizing the work of subscriber points and automated workstations.

The organization of technology at its individual stages has its own characteristics, which gives grounds for distinguishing out-of-machine and intra-machine technology.Out-of-machine technology (it is often called pre-basic) combines the operations of collecting and recording data, recording data on computer media with control.In-machine technology is associated with the organization of the computing process in a computer, the organization of data arrays in the machine’s memory and their structuring, which gives reason to call it also intra-base. Considering that the subsequent chapters of the textbook are devoted to the tools that make up the technical basis for extra-machine and intra-machine information conversion, we will briefly consider only the features of the construction of these technologies.

The main stage of the technological process is associated with solving functional problems on a computer. In-machine technology for solving problems on a computer, as a rule, implements the following typical processes for transforming economic information: the formation of new arrays of information; organizing information arrays; selecting some part of records from the array, merging and splitting arrays; making changes to the array; performing arithmetic operations on details within records, within arrays, and on records of several arrays. The solution of each individual problem or set of problems requires the following operations: inputting a program for machine solution of the problem and placing it in the computer memory, input of initial data, logical and arithmetic control of entered information, correction of erroneous data, arrangement of input arrays and sorting of entered information, calculations according to a given algorithm, obtaining output arrays of information, editing output forms, displaying information on the screen and on computer media, printing tables with output data.

The choice of one or another technology option is determined primarily by the space-time features of the tasks being solved, frequency, urgency, requirements for the speed of message processing and depends both on the practice-dictated mode of interaction between the user and the computer, and the operational capabilities of the technical means - primarily the computer.

There are the following modes of user interaction with a computer: batch and interactive (query, dialog). The computers themselves can operate in various modes: single- and multi-program, time sharing, real time, teleprocessing. At the same time, the goal is to satisfy the needs of users for the maximum possible automation of solving various problems.

Batch modewas most common in the practice of centralized solution of economic problems, when a large share of the analysis of the production and economic activities of economic objects at different levels of management.

The organization of the computing process in batch mode was built without user access to the computer. Its functions were limited to preparing initial data for a set of information-interrelated tasks and transferring them to the processing center, where a package was formed, including a computer task for processing, programs, initial, regulatory, pricing and reference data. The package was entered into the computer and implemented automatically without the participation of the user or operator, which made it possible to minimize the time required to complete a given set of tasks. In this case, the computer could operate in a single-program or multi-program mode, which is preferable, since parallel operation of the main devices of the machine was ensured. Currently, batch mode is implemented for email.

Interactive mode provides for direct interaction between the user and the information and computing system; it can be in the nature of a request (as a rule, regulated) or a dialogue with the computer.

The request mode is necessary for users to interact with the system through a significant number of subscriber terminal devices, including those located at a considerable distance from the processing center. This need is due to the solution of operational tasks, such as, for example, marketing tasks, personnel reshuffle tasks, strategic tasks, etc. In such cases, the computer implements a queuing system and operates in a time-sharing mode, in which several independent subscribers (users) with the help of input-output devices have direct and almost simultaneous access to the computer in the process of solving their problems. This mode allows you to differentially, in a strictly established order, provide each user with time to communicate with the computer, and turn it off after the end of the session.

The dialog mode allows the user to directly interact with the computer system at the pace of work acceptable to him, implementing a repeating cycle of issuing a task, receiving and analyzing a response. In this case, the computer itself can initiate a dialogue, informing the user of the sequence of steps (providing a menu) to obtain the desired result.

Both types of interactive mode (query, dialog) are based on computer operation in real-time and teleprocessing modes, which are a further development of the time-sharing mode. That's why mandatory conditions functioning of the system in these modes are: firstly, the constant storage of the necessary information and programs in computer storage devices and only a minimal amount of initial information from subscribers and, secondly, the availability of appropriate means of communication with the computer for subscribers to access it in any moment in time.

Economic information is a transformed and processed set of information that reflects the state and course of economic processes. Economic information circulates in the economic system and accompanies the processes of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services. Economic information should be considered as one of the types of management information.

Economic information can be:

Manager (in the form of direct orders, planned tasks, etc.);

Informing (in reporting indicators, performs a feedback function in the economic system).

Information can be considered as a resource similar to material, labor and monetary resources. Information resources are a set of accumulated information recorded on tangible media in any form that ensures its transmission in time and space to solve scientific, production, management and other problems.

Collection, storage, processing, transmission of information in numerical form is carried out using information technology. The peculiarity of information technologies is that in them both the subject and product of labor is information, and the tools of labor are computers and communications.

The main goal of information technology is the production of information necessary for the user as a result of targeted actions for its processing.

It is known that information technology is a set of methods, production and software-technological tools combined into a technological chain that ensures the collection, storage, processing, output and dissemination of information.

From the point of view of information technology, information requires a material carrier as a source of information, a transmitter, a communication channel, a receiver and a recipient of information.

A message from a source to a recipient is transmitted through communication channels or through a medium.

Information is a form of communication between managed and control objects in any control system. In accordance with the general theory of control, the control process can be represented as the interaction of two systems - the control and the controlled.

The accuracy of the information ensures its unambiguous perception by all consumers. Reliability determines the permissible level of distortion of both incoming and resulting information, at which the efficiency of the system is maintained. Efficiency reflects the relevance of information for the necessary calculations and decision-making in changing conditions.

In the processes of automated processing of economic information, the object undergoing transformation is various kinds of data that characterize certain economic phenomena. Such processes are called AOEI technological processes and represent a complex of interconnected operations occurring in an established sequence. Or, in more detail, it is the process of converting input information into output using technical means and resources.

Rational design of technological processes for data processing in EIS largely determines the effective functioning of the entire system.

The entire technological process can be divided into processes for collecting and entering initial data into a computer system, processes for placing data and storing it in the system’s memory, processes for processing data in order to obtain results, and processes for issuing data in a form convenient for user perception.

The technological process can be divided into 4 major stages:

1. - initial or primary (collection of initial data, their registration and transfer to the computer);

2. - preparatory (reception, control, registration of input information and transferring it to computer media);

3. - basic (direct information processing);

4. - final (control, release and transmission of resulting information, its reproduction and storage).

Depending on the technical means used and the requirements for information processing technology, the composition of the technological process operations also changes. For example: information on a computer can arrive at MN prepared for input into a computer or be transmitted via communication channels from the place of its origin.

Data collection and recording operations are carried out using various means.

There are:

─mechanized;

─automated;

1). Mechanized - collection and registration of information is carried out directly by a person using the simplest instruments (scales, counters, measuring containers, time recording devices, etc.).

2). Automated - the use of machine-readable documents, recording machines, universal collection and registration systems that ensure the combination of operations for generating primary documents and obtaining machine media.

3). Auto - used mainly in real-time data processing.

(Information from sensors that take into account the progress of production - product output, raw material costs, equipment downtime, etc. - goes directly to the computer).

Technical means of data transmission include:

─ data transmission equipment (DTE), which connects data processing and preparation facilities with telegraph, telephone and broadband communication channels;

─ devices for interfacing a computer with an ADF, which control the exchange of information - data transmission multiplexers.

Recording and transmitting information via communication channels to a computer has the following advantages:

─ simplifies the process of generating and controlling information;

─ the principle of single registration of information in the primary document and computer media is observed;

─ high reliability of information entering the computer is ensured.

Remote data transmission, based on the use of communication channels, is the transmission of data in the form of electrical signals, which can be continuous in time and discrete, i.e. be of a continuous nature. The most widely used are telegraph and telephone communication channels. Electrical signals, transmitted over a telegraph communication channel are discrete, and over a telephone channel - continuous.

Depending on the directions in which information is sent, communication channels are distinguished:

─ simplex (transmission occurs in only one direction);

─ half-duplex (at each moment of time, information is either transmitted or received);

─ duplex (information is transmitted and received simultaneously in two opposite directions).

Channels are characterized by data transmission speed, reliability, and reliability of transmission.

The transmission speed is determined by the amount of information transmitted per unit of time and is measured in baud (baud = bits/sec).

Telegraph channels (low speed - V=50-200 baud),

telephone(medium speed - V=200-2400 baud), and

broadband(high-speed - V=4800 baud or more).

When choosing the best way information transfer takes into account the volume and time parameters of delivery, requirements for the quality of transmitted information, labor and cost costs for information transfer.

Speaking about the technological operations of collecting, recording, and transmitting information using various technical means, it is necessary to say a few words about scanning devices.

Entering information, especially graphic information, using a keyboard into a computer is very labor-intensive. IN lately There have been trends in the use of business graphics - one of the main types of information, which requires prompt entry into a computer and providing users with the ability to generate hybrid documents and databases that combine graphics with text. All these functions in a PC are performed by scanning devices. They implement optical input of information and convert it into digital form with subsequent processing.

For the IBM PC PC, the PC Image/Graphix system has been developed, designed for scanning various documents and transmitting them via communications. Documentary media of the system that can be scanned by the camera include: text, line drawings, photographs, microfilms. PC-based scanning devices are used not only for entering text and graphic information, but also in control systems, processing letters, and performing various accounting functions.

For these tasks, methods of encoding information using bar codes are most widely used. Scanning bar codes to enter information into a PC is done using miniature scanners that resemble a pencil. The scanner is moved by the user perpendicular to a group of strokes, an internal light source illuminates the area of ​​this set immediately near the tip of the scanner. Bar codes are widely used both in trade and in enterprises (in the timesheet system: when reading the actual time worked from an employee’s card, it records the time, date, etc.).

Recently, more and more attention has been paid to tactile input devices - touch screens ("touch" - sensitive). Tactile input devices are widely used as information and reference systems for general use and automated learning systems. Developed by a US company touch monitor Point-1 with a resolution of 1024 x 1024 pixels for IBM PC and other PCs. Touch screen widely used for stock exchanges (information about the latest selling prices of shares...).

In practice, there are many options (organizational forms) for technological data processing processes. This depends on the use of various means of computing and organizational technology in individual operations of the technological process.

The construction of a technological process depends on the nature of the tasks being solved, the range of users, the technical means used, data control systems, etc.

Microsoft Excel belongs to a class of programs calledspreadsheets . Spreadsheets are focused primarily on solving economic and engineering problems; they allow you to systematize data from any field of activity. The following versions of this program exist - Microsoft Excel 4.0, 5.0, 7.0, 97, 2000. This workshop covers version 97. Introduction to more earlier versions makes it easy to move on to the next one.

Microsoft Excel allows you to:

· generate data in the form of tables;

· present data from tables in graphical form;

· organize data into structures that are similar in capabilities to a database.

Microsoft Excel has 12 worksheet functions that are used to analyze data from lists or databases. Each of these functions, which for compatibility reasons are collectively called DBFunction, takes three arguments: database, field, and criterion. These three arguments refer to the ranges of cells in the worksheet that are used by this function.

Databaseis the range of cells that form a list or database.

A database in Microsoft Excel is a list of related data in which the rows of data are records and the columns are fields. Top line the list contains the names of each column. The link can be specified as a range of cells or as a name corresponding to a list range.

Fielddefines the column used by the function. Data fields in the list must contain an identifying name on the first line. The field argument can be specified as text with the column name in double quotes, such as "Age" or "Harvest" in the database example below, or as a number specifying the position of the column in the list: 1 for the first field (Tree), 2 for for the second field (Height) and so on.

Criterionis a reference to the range of cells that define the conditions for the function. The function returns data from a list that satisfies the conditions specified by a range of criteria. The criteria range includes a copy of the column name in the list that is being summarized. The criterion reference can be entered as a range of cells, such as A1:F2 in the database example below, or as a range name, such as "Criteria". For more information about the conditions that can be used as a criterion argument, click the button.

Functions for working with databases and lists

BDDISP Estimates variance from a sample of selected database records

BDDISPP Calculates the population variance from selected database records

BDPRODUCT Multiplies the values ​​of a specific field in database records that satisfy a condition

BDSUMM Sums the numbers in a field for database records that satisfy a condition

BIZVLECH Retrieves one record from the database that satisfies a given condition

COUNT Counts the number of numeric cells in a database

ACCOUNTS Counts the number of non-empty cells in the database

DMAX Returns the maximum value among the selected database records

DMIN Returns the minimum value among the selected database records

DSRVALUE Returns the average of selected database records

DSTANDOFF Estimates the standard deviation of a sample of selected database records

DSTANDOTCLP Calculates the population standard deviation from selected database records

Organization of data in the program

The program file is a so-calledworkbook , or working folder. Each workbook can contain 256worksheets . By default, the Excel 97 version contains 3 worksheets, previous version The program contained 16 worksheets by default. The sheets can contain both interrelated and completely independent information. The worksheet is a template for a table.

Rules for working with formulas

· the formula always begins with the = sign;

· the formula can contain arithmetic operations signs + - * / (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division);

· if the formula contains cell addresses, then the contents of the cell are involved in the calculation;

· Click to get the result.

If you need to calculate data in a column using a formula of the same type, in which only the cell addresses change when moving to the next row of the table, then such a formula can be copied or multiplied across all cells of a given column.

For example:

The amount in the last column is calculated by multiplying the data from the “Price of one copy” column and the data from the “Quantity” column; the formula does not change when moving to the next row in the table, only the cell addresses change.

Copying cell contents

Select the source cell, place the mouse pointer on the edge of the frame and, while holding down the key and the left mouse button, move the frame to a new location. This copies the contents of the cell, including the formula.

Autofill cells

Select the source cell, there is a fill marker in the lower right corner, place the mouse cursor on it, it will look like + ; With the left key pressed, we stretch the border of the frame to a group of cells. In this case, all selected cells are filled with the contents of the first cell. In this case, when copying and autofilling, the cell addresses in the formulas change accordingly. For example, the formula = A1 + B1 will change to = A2 + B2.

For example: = $A$5 * A6

When you copy this formula to the next row, the first cell reference will remain unchanged, but the second address in the formula will change.

Calculation of totals by columns

In tables, you often need to calculate column totals. There is a special icon for thisAutosummation . First, you need to select the cells with the source data; to do this, click the icon; the amount will be located in the free cell under the column.

The considered technological processes and operating modes of users in the “man-machine” system are especially clearly manifested in the integrated processing of information, which is characteristic of a modern automated solution in the adoption of management tasks. Information processes used in the development of management decisions in automated organizational management systems are implemented using computers and other technical means. As computer technology develops, so do the forms of its use. There are various ways to access and communicate with a computer. Individual and collective access to computing resources depends on the degree of their concentration and organizational forms of functioning. Centralized forms of using computing tools that existed before the mass use of personal computers involved their concentration in one place and the organization of information and computing centers (ICCs) for individual and collective use (ICCCP).

Recently, the organization of the use of computer technology has undergone significant changes associated with the transition to the creation of integrated information systems.Integrated Information Systems are created taking into account the fact that they must implement coordinated data management within the enterprise (organization), coordinate the work of individual departments, automate information exchange operations both within individual user groups and between several organizations located tens and hundreds apart kilometers. The basis for building such systems is local area networks (LAN). A characteristic feature of a LAN is that it allows users to work in a universal information environment with functions of collective access to data.

In the last 2-3 years, computerization has reached a new level: computing systems of various configurations based on personal computers (PCs) and more powerful machines are being actively created. Consisting of several standalone computers with common shared external devices (disks, tapes) and unified management, they allow for more reliable protection of computer resources (devices, databases, programs), increase fault tolerance, and ensure ease of upgrading and increasing system capacity. More and more attention is being paid to the development of not only local, but also distributed networks, without which it is unthinkable to solve modern problems of informatization.

Depending on the degree of centralization of computing resources, the user's role and functions change. With centralized forms, when the user does not have direct contact with the computer, his role is reduced to transferring source data for processing, obtaining results, identifying and eliminating errors. When the user communicates directly with the computer, its functions in information technology expand. All this is implemented within one workplace. The user is required to have knowledge of the basics of computer science and computer technology.

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