The communication process and its communication structure. Communication process

Introduction
1. Structure of the communication process
2. Elements and stages of the communication process
3. Production, distribution and consumption of information
4. Effective communication process
Conclusion
List of used literature
PopoV
Introduction

The communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people.
The main goal of the communication process is to ensure understanding of the information that is the subject of communication, i.e. messages. However, the very fact of information exchange does not guarantee the effectiveness of communication between the people participating in the exchange. To better understand the process of information exchange and the conditions for its effectiveness, it is necessary to understand the stages of the process in which two or more people participate.
The communication process can be divided into separate fragments, communication units - communicative acts. Of course, the communication process itself is a continuum, a continuous interaction of communication participants. However, for the purposes of analysis and description, it is necessary to distinguish discrete units - this is how human cognition works.
The purpose of this work is to consider the main elements of the communication process, for this we highlight the following goals :

Consider the structure of the communication process
Highlight the elements and stages of the communication process
Study the production, distribution and consumption of information
Analyze effective communication process

Structure of the communication process

1. The birth of an idea
Information exchange begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. Many communication attempts fail at this first stage because the sender does not spend enough time thinking about the idea. At this stage, it is necessary to understand what ideas are intended to be conveyed before you send a message, and also to evaluate the adequacy and appropriateness of your ideas, taking into account the specific situation and purpose of the communication.

2. Encoding and channel selection
Before conveying an idea, the sender must symbolically encode it using words, intonation and gestures (body language). This encoding turns an idea into a message.
The sender must also select a channel that is compatible with the type of symbols used for encoding. Some commonly known channels include speech and written communications, as well as electronic communications, including computer networks, email, videotapes and videoconferencing. If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. A picture is sometimes worth a thousand words, but not when sending a message over the phone. Likewise, it may not be feasible to talk to all employees at once. Memos can be sent out prior to small group meetings to ensure the message is understood and buy-in to the issue. If the channel does not closely match the idea generated in the first stage, the exchange of information will be less effective. The choice of communication medium should not be limited to a single channel. It is often desirable to use two or more communication media in combination. The process becomes more complex because the sender has to sequence the use of these means and determine the time intervals in the sequence of information transfer. However, research shows that using spoken and written communications simultaneously is usually more effective than, say, written communications alone.

3. Transfer
In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. It's about physical transmission message, which many people mistakenly take for the communication process itself. At the same time, as we have seen, communication is only one of the stages through which it is necessary to go through in order to convey an idea to another person.

4. Decoding
After the sender transmits a message, the recipient decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning to the recipient, the latter will know exactly what the sender had in mind when his idea was formed. If no reaction to the idea is required, the process of information exchange should end there.
However, for a number of reasons, the recipient may give a slightly different meaning to the message than in the sender’s head. From a manager's point of view, an exchange of information should be considered effective if the recipient demonstrated understanding of the idea by performing the actions that the sender expected of him.
Feedback and noise
Feedback
Feedback is a reaction to what is heard, read or seen; information
information (verbal or non-verbal) is sent back to the sender, indicating the degree of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with the message.
Subject to availability feedback the sender and receiver change communicative roles. The original recipient becomes the sender and goes through all the stages of the communication process to transmit its response to the initial sender, who now plays the role of the receiver. Effective communication must be two-way: feedback is necessary to understand the extent to which the message has been received and understood.
Feedback can significantly improve the effectiveness of management information exchange. According to a number of studies, two-way information (with opportunities for feedback) compared to one-way information (no feedback), although it is slower, nevertheless effectively relieves stress, is more accurate and increases confidence in the correct interpretation of messages.

NOISE
In the language of information transmission theory, noise is what distorts the meaning. Sources of noise that can create barriers to information exchange range from language (whether verbal or nonverbal), to differences in perception that can alter meaning in the encoding and decoding processes, to differences in organizational status between supervisor and subordinate. , which may make it difficult to convey information accurately.
Certain noises are always present, so at every stage of the information exchange process some distortion of meaning occurs. We usually manage to cut through the noise and get our message across. However high level noise will definitely lead to a noticeable loss of meaning and can completely block the attempt to establish an information exchange. From the manager’s perspective, this should lead to a decrease in the degree of achievement of goals in accordance with the transmitted information. Feedback significantly improves the chances of effective communication by allowing both parties to cancel out the noise.

Communication process model

In this generalized model, the communication process is presented as a system with feedback and noise.

2. Elements and stages of the communication process
The following elements can be distinguished in the communication process:
Source. In an organization, sources of information can be managers and employees expressing various ideas, intentions or reporting any information.
Sender. The sender is an individual who would like to convey his ideas to others. To do this, he must find information and express his thoughts and emotions.
Message. This is the formulation of the idea being sent, encoded in symbols. It is coding that turns an idea into a message.
Channel. In the communication process, a channel is the means by which a message is transmitted to the recipient. The means of transmission can be oral speeches, appeals, telephone conversations, various meetings and meetings, written reports, and the media.
Recipient. The recipient - the person to whom the message is addressed, decodes the symbols contained in the message, interprets their meaning for himself, using his experience or suggested recommendations.
Feedback. When the recipient responds to the sender's communications with a return message, feedback occurs.
Interference, barriers. Interference and barriers distort the meaning of transmitted information and disrupt the quality of the signal. In the theory of information transmission, they are called noise. Certain noises always exist in the communication process. Their low level allows messages to be transmitted. High noise levels can completely distort the meaning of a message.
When exchanging information, the sender and recipient go through several interconnected stages. Their job is to craft a message and use the channel to convey it in such a way that both parties understand and share the original idea. This is difficult, because each stage is also a point at which the meaning can be distorted or completely lost. These interconnected stages are:
The birth of an idea.
Encoding and channel selection.
Broadcast.
Decoding.
Although the entire communication process is often completed in a few seconds, making it difficult to isolate its stages, let's analyze these stages to show what problems can arise at different points.
The exchange of information begins with the formation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. Unfortunately, many communication attempts fail at this first stage because the sender does not spend enough time thinking about the idea. Keith Davis emphasizes the importance of this step: “A bad message will not improve on glossy paper or by increasing the power of the loudspeaker. The leitmotif of the stage is “don’t start talking before you start thinking.”
It must be remembered that the idea has not yet been transformed into words or acquired another form in which it will serve the exchange of information. The sender has only decided which concept he wants to make the subject of information exchange. To carry out the process effectively, he must take many factors into account. For example, a manager who wants to exchange information about performance appraisals must be clear that the idea is to communicate specific information to subordinates about their strengths and weaknesses and how their performance can be improved. The idea cannot be vague general praise or criticism of the behavior of subordinates.
This example also shows the connection between perception and communication. A manager who considers his subordinates capable of development and improvement, and therefore in need of information with an assessment of the results of their work, will most likely have practical positive ideas for exchanging information on this topic in essence. A manager who views his subordinates as children waiting to be corrected and directed is likely to incorporate into his ideas the negative criticism inherent in that way of thinking.
Another example of potential problems during the ideation stage comes from a shop manager who has just received a message from senior management that the company needs to increase video game production by 6% without increasing overtime pay. If the shop manager fails to figure out the best way to communicate this information to his subordinates and sends the message back to them exactly as it was received, misunderstandings may occur because the workers will only understand the fact that changes are necessary. If the leader actually thinks about the ideas that require transfer, he may come to the following conclusions:
Workers must understand exactly what changes are needed - an increase in production by 6% without additional overtime.
Workers must understand why these changes are needed, otherwise they may conclude that the company is trying to squeeze more out of them and pay them less, and rebel.
Workers need to understand how changes should be made - product quality and defect rates must not change due to increased production, otherwise efficiency may decrease rather than increase, as the message from top management requires.
Managers who communicate poorly may perform poorly because that is how senior management behaves towards them. The fact is that senior managers often serve as role models for the behavior of subordinates. If our leaders are coercive or not forthcoming in sharing information with us, we may well behave similarly when sharing information with our subordinates. However, you are in a different position than your superiors. Therefore, it is not necessary to act in the same style, even if that style is effective. What is really needed is to be aware of what ideas are intended to be conveyed before you send a message, and to be confident in the adequacy and appropriateness of your ideas given the specific situation and purpose.

3. Production, distribution and consumption of information

Before conveying an idea, the sender must symbolically encode it using words, intonation and gestures (body language). This encoding turns an idea into a message.
The sender must also select a channel that is compatible with the character type used for encoding. Some commonly known channels include the transmission of speech and written materials, as well as electronic communications, including computer networks, e-mail, video tapes and video conferencing.
If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. A picture is sometimes worth a thousand words, but not when sending a message over the phone. Likewise, it may not be feasible to talk to all employees at once. Memos can be sent out prior to small group meetings to ensure the message is understood and buy-in to the issue.
If the channel does not closely match the idea generated in the first stage, the exchange of information will be less effective. For example, a manager wants to warn a subordinate that the latter’s serious violations of security measures are not permissible, and does this during a light conversation over a cup of coffee or by sending him a note on the occasion. However, these channels may not be able to convey the seriousness of the violation as effectively as a formal letter or meeting. Likewise, sending a subordinate note about the exceptionality of her accomplishment will not convey the message of how important her contribution is to the work, nor will it be as effective as a direct conversation followed by a formal letter expressing gratitude and a bonus.
The choice of communication medium should not be limited to a single channel. It is often desirable to use two or more communication media in combination. The process becomes more complex because the sender has to sequence the use of these means and determine the time intervals in the sequence of information transfer. However, research shows that using oral and written communication tools together is usually more effective than, say, writing written information alone. Discussing the results of this study, Professor Terrence Mitchell points out: The main conclusion of this work is that oral plus written communication is likely to make information exchange more effective in most cases. Focusing on both channels forces you to prepare more thoroughly and record the parameters of the situation in writing. However, in no way should every information exchange be written. In this case, paper flows become uncontrollable.
The step will become clearer if you think of it as a packaging operation. Many indeed good products They do not find sales until they have a package that the consumer finds understandable and attractive at the same time. Likewise, many people with great ideas fail to package them with symbols and put them into channels that are meaningful and attractive to the recipient. When this happens, the idea, no matter how wonderful it is, often does not find fruition.
Broadcast.
In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. We are talking about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistakenly take for the communication process itself. At the same time, as we have seen, communication is only one of the most important stages that must be passed through in order to convey an idea to another person.
Decoding.
After the sender transmits a message, the recipient decodes it.
Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning to the recipient, the latter will know exactly what the sender had in mind when his idea was formulated.
If no reaction to the idea is required, the process of information exchange should end there.

4. Effective communication process

The most general rule is that one cannot begin to communicate an idea if it is not clear or is not fully understood by oneself. “Clarify your ideas before you communicate them,” is how this rule is formulated.
The rule of “constant readiness for misunderstanding” and the assumption of the performers’ “right to misunderstanding.” A common misconception of leaders is that they cannot be misunderstood. On the contrary, the variety of semantic and personal “barriers” often leads to an incomplete and inaccurate understanding of messages in its first version. This requires further clarification.
Rule of specificity. Vague, ambiguous, vague expressions and words should be avoided, and unnecessarily not using unfamiliar or highly specialized terms, or overloading the message with “professionalism”.
Rule for monitoring nonverbal signals. It is not enough to control only your speech and the content of your message. It is also necessary to control its form in that part that concerns its external “accompaniment” - facial expressions, gestures, intonation, posture. Comprehensive data on “body language” is presented, for example, in the book “Body Language” by A. Pease. For example, very important information, communicated by a leader sitting in a relaxed position, and even in an intonation with a touch of playfulness and, moreover, in an informal setting, is unlikely to be recognized by the addressee as such, despite its substantive characteristics.
Addressee rule. It is necessary to strive to speak “in the language of the interlocutor,” i.e. take into account his life and professional experience, individual characteristics, cultural and educational level, its values ​​and interests.
The “own wrong” rule. When communicating, it is always necessary to accept that a personal point of view may be incorrect. This very often warns against very serious mistakes and gross miscalculations.
Rule of "place and time". The effectiveness of any message, and in particular a directive, increases sharply if it is timely and the most appropriate situation and environment in which it is implemented is selected.
The rule of openness means a willingness to revise one’s point of view under the influence of newly discovered circumstances, as well as the ability to accept and take into account the point of view of the interlocutor.
The rule of active and constructive listening is one of the main conditions for effective communications. However, it is precisely this that is most often violated - and the higher the level of the leader and the more authoritarian his methods, the greater the violations. In some cases, this rule can be followed “exactly the opposite” and sounds like this: “If you want to talk to me, then be silent.” Research shows that only 25% of managers have some level of listening skills. K. Davis summarized the requirements that are included in listening skills as follows:
1) stop talking;
2) help the speaker to relax;
3) show the speaker that you are ready to listen;
4) eliminate irritating moments;
5) empathize with the speaker;
6) be patient;
7) control your temper;
8) do not allow disputes or preferential criticism;
9) ask questions;
10) and again - “stop talking!” Finally, concludes K. Davis, “nature gave man two ears, but only one tongue, hinting that it is better to listen more than to talk.”
Feedback rule. The importance of feedback as a general principle for constructing the communication process has already been mentioned. It is he who ultimately ensures the achievement of the main goal of the communication process - mutual understanding. Technically, feedback can be provided by asking follow-up questions or asking people to repeat what they have said. Another organizational form of providing effective feedback is a unique leadership style - “open door policy” or “leadership from outside the office” (it has other names - taking management outside the offices, management by walking around workplaces, “visible management”, management by "walking around").
There are a number of principles for ensuring effective feedback, which are specific means of implementing the communicative function of Effective Feedback (EF):
1) should be aimed at studying the actions of members of the organization;
2) it is constructive and thanks to it, the recipient is informed of ideas that are useful to him;
3) reveals a tendency towards specificity, establishing exactly what the problems are and what exactly should be done to eliminate them;
4) is immediate;
5) is based not so much on an assessment of what was said (good or bad), but on a statement of what should (or should not) be done;
6) is useful to a member of the organization to the extent that it provides him with ways to improve his work;
7) is characterized by timely receipt to the employee, giving him the opportunity to make improvements in his actions;
8) in order for the OS to be effective, members of the organization must show desire and readiness to accept it;
9) must be clearly expressed in such a way as to be understandable to the recipient; 10) must be reliable.
Finally, it should be noted that management theory formulates the three most general principles of effective communication.
Principle of Clarity: A message is clear if it is expressed in such language and conveyed in such a way that it can be understood by the recipient.
Integrity principle: The purpose of management messages is to promote mutual understanding between people as they collaborate to achieve the goals of the enterprise.
The principle of strategic use of the informal organization: the most effective communication occurs when the leader uses the informal organization in addition to the communication channels of the formal organization.
The need to comply with these general principles, as well as the rules discussed above, thus sets the main guidelines for the implementation of the communicative function in management activities, determines its content and specificity

Conclusion
Two-way exchange of information, although slower, is more accurate and increases confidence in the correct interpretation of messages. Feedback “increases the chances of effective information exchange by allowing both parties to eliminate interference. Sources of interference that create barriers to the exchange of information range from language (whether verbal or nonverbal), differences in perception that can alter meaning in the encoding and decoding processes, and differences in organizational status between supervisor and subordinate.
etc.............

Elements of the communication process

There are 4 basic elements:

• Sender, the person collecting and transmitting information.
• Message, information encoded using symbols.
• Channel, means of transmitting information.
• Recipient, the person to whom the information is addressed and who interprets it.

The sender and recipient go through several interconnected stages when exchanging information. Their task is to compose a message that must be transmitted through communication channels in such a way that both parties understand and share the original idea. This process is far from easy, since each stage is also a point at which the meaning can be distorted or completely lost.

Stages of the communication process

• The birth of an idea
• Encoding and channel selection
• Broadcast
• Decoding

A simple model of the information exchange process is presented in the diagram http://sesia.com.ua/darom/menedgment/027.files/image001.gif

THE ORIGIN OF AN IDEA

The sender has a key role in the communication process. It consists in the formation of an idea and the selection of information intended for transmission to another or other participants in the process. Fulfilling a given role begins with identifying oneself (who am I?) within the framework of this process and formulating the meaning or meaning of why and what needs to be conveyed to the other participant. Next, the sender encodes his idea.

ENCODING AND CHANNEL SELECTION

Coding is the transformation of a transmitted message into a message or signal that can be transmitted.

Before starting to convey an idea, the sender must encode it using symbols (words, intonation or gestures). This encoding turns an idea into a message. The sender must also select a channel compatible with the type of characters used for encoding. Commonly known channels include speech and written communications, electronic communications including computer networks, e-mail, videotapes and video conferencing. If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. The exchange of information will not be effective if the communication channel does not correspond to the emerging idea. It is desirable that the choice of means of transmitting a message is not limited to one channel. Of course, the process of transmitting information becomes more complicated, since the sender has to establish the sequence of using these means and determine the time intervals in the sequence of information transmission. However, communicating information using, for example, oral and written media is usually more effective than, say, exchanging written information alone.

BROADCAST

In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. As soon as the transmission of a message or signal has begun, the communication process goes beyond the control of the medium or person who sent it. Once sent, a message cannot be returned.

From the moment the information is transmitted, the sending stage ends and the stage of receiving the transmitted information and understanding its meaning begins. The channel transmits a message to the receiver. If the message's carriers (code signs) or forms change in the channel, then the reception is considered unsuccessful. The person to whom the message was addressed is called the recipient. This is another key role performed by the participant in interpersonal communication in order for the process to take place. The role of the recipient is not only to record the receipt of the message, but also to decode this message into a meaning that is understandable and acceptable to him.

DECODING

Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. It includes the perception (the fact of receiving) the message by the recipient, its interpretation (how it was understood) and evaluation (what and how it was received). If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning for the recipient, the latter will know what exactly the sender meant, when his idea was formulated.

However, there are reasons why the recipient may give the message a slightly different meaning than the one intended by the sender.

Feedback and interference

Before discussing the various barriers to information sharing, it is necessary to understand two important concepts - feedback and interference.

FEEDBACK

When there is feedback, the sender and receiver switch communication roles. The original receiver becomes the sender and goes through all the stages of the communication process to transmit its response to the initial sender, who now plays the role of the receiver. Feedback is a reaction to what is heard, seen or read.

In feedback, information is sent back to the sender, indicating the extent of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with the message. Effective communication must be two-way: feedback is necessary to understand the extent to which the message has been received and understood. Two-way communication is more accurate and increases confidence in the correct interpretation of messages.

NOISE

Feedback increases your chances of communicating effectively. It allows both parties to suppress noise. Noise- this is any interference in the communication process at any of its sections, distorting the meaning of the message. Sources of noise that changes the transmitted signal can be language, differences in perception, due to which the meaning changes during encoding and decoding.

Certain noises are always present. And therefore, at every stage of the information exchange process, some distortion of meaning occurs. We usually manage to cut through the noise and get our message across. However, a high noise level will definitely lead to a noticeable loss of meaning and may completely block the attempt to establish an information exchange.

In this figure, the information exchange process is presented as a system with feedback and noise www.newreferat.com/images/referats/12433/image001.gif

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what “Communication process” is in other dictionaries:

Communication process- – In communication science, there are three forms of this process, which generally involves the transfer of information: intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication and mass... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media

Communication act- as periodically repeating, structurally formed, complete and relatively self-sufficient. the communication element is the unit of the communication process. In each K. a. Subjectively subject relationships are realized by communicants in 2 stages:… …

MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION- a control system that, through integrated communication with target audiences contributes to achieving maximum efficiency in all areas of market-oriented development of the organization in a changing external... ... Marketing. Large explanatory dictionary

Communication task- the task of individual communication activity, consisting in the influence of the subject O. on the partner’s system of ideas, opinions, points of view, as well as on own system ideas on the problem under discussion with the aim of changing them in the direction... Psychology of communication. Encyclopedic Dictionary

The concepts of “interpersonal communication” and “interaction” in various conceptual models- In many modern In research, the concept of communication (communication) comes closer to social interaction. But interaction requires feedback in the form of a response. In addition, interaction presupposes direct presence... ... Psychology of communication. Encyclopedic Dictionary

Trendsetter (English Trendsetter; from English Trend tendency, to set, establish, start) a person trying to become a founder, or who has founded some tangible or intangible innovation. It was first mentioned in... ... Wikipedia

- (from lat. propaganda subject to distribution) popularization and dissemination of political, philosophical. religious, scientific, artistic or other ideas in society through speech, media, visual or other means... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

System 112 is a system for providing emergency calls operational services By single number"112" on the territory Russian Federation. Designed to ensure the provision emergency assistance to the population in case of threats to life and health, for... ... Wikipedia

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The communication process is the exchange of information between individuals or a group of individuals. The main goal of the communication process is to ensure that the message sent is understood. There are four main required elements in the information exchange process:

• sender, the person collecting information and transmitting it;
• message, the information itself, presented in one form or another;
• channel, or means of transmitting information;
• the recipient, or the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

However, the communication process itself consists of more elements and stages.

The sender must initially have an idea, or this can be formulated as “think first, and then speak.” It must be thought out what idea is going to be conveyed to the recipient, why and how it should be perceived. For example, if information is conveyed about the introduction of a new product to a consumer, then it is determined what he needs to know about the product, why he needs this product, and how this product will bring the greatest benefit.

Thus, by processing the idea “for the recipient,” information is born that needs to be presented in some form or, in other words, encoded. Encoding is the translation of information into words, symbols, intonation, gestures (body language). Coding largely depends on which channel or medium of transmission will be chosen: oral speech, written communication, sign, poster, electronic communication channel (computer communication), etc. If the channel does not correspond to the idea that appeared on initial stage, information exchange will be ineffective. For example, if you need to explain how new equipment works, you can do this either verbally or by writing specific instructions. If the work process is complex, then the second communication channel will be more effective, especially if it is supported by visual information (drawings and graphs).

The choice of communication medium should not be limited to a single channel. It is often desirable to use two or more communication media in combination. This can enhance the effect of perception and correct the shortcomings of any one channel.

An important factor influencing the communication process is the organizational aspect, namely the configuration communication networks.

Networks are the connection of individuals or elements participating in communication processes in a certain way using information flows.

Centralized information flows(wheel type, radial). It is characterized by the fact that one of the group members is always at the intersection of all directions of communication.

Understanding these types of communication networks is important in determining power and social positions within a group.

The choice in practice of one or another communication network is determined by the goals and objectives facing the group. If it is necessary to improve the communication system, then it is advisable to start with an analysis of communication networks.

Transmission of information to the recipient is the physical delivery of information to the recipient, which is often mistaken for the entire communication process. In fact, this is the process of organizing the availability of information or information message. In an organization, this process is ensured by secretaries, messengers or by electronic means. The recipient (for example, a performer or boss) must see, hear and understand what is being communicated to him.

Understanding depends on how the information message is decoded. Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. The more accurately the symbols are selected, the more accurately they will be decoded. Each leader must select such expressions of his thoughts that correspond to the level of perception of his subordinate.

The entire process of transmitting information would be incomplete without receiving (controlling) and interpreting feedback. After receiving a message, the recipient has a reaction that characterizes how the message was understood. The recipient performs an action that must also be decoded, but by the sender himself. Feedback arises, which allows you to control and adjust the process of information transfer. Feedback improves the efficiency of the entire communication process and allows you to compensate for noise in the channel. Noise is something that distorts the meaning of transmitted information. This could be a purely mechanical fault (eg bad quality press), differences in the education of the participants in the process (people do not understand the terminology or understand it in their own way), differences in perception, etc. Noise is almost always present. Therefore, the manager needs to know the possible sources of noise and how to eliminate them.

The communication process is the process of transmitting information from one person to another or between groups of people through different channels and using various communication means(verbal, non-verbal, etc.).

When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word (social communication - T.B.), then, first of all, they mean the fact that in the course of joint activities people exchange different views, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. All this can be considered as information, and then the communication process itself can be understood as a process of information exchange.

G.M. Andreeva believes that the next tempting step can be taken from this and interpret the entire process of human communication in terms of information theory, which is what is done in a number of systems of socio-psychological knowledge. However, this approach cannot be considered methodologically correct, because it omits some the most important characteristics namely human communication, which is not limited to the process of transmitting information. Not to mention the fact that with this approach, basically only one direction of the flow of information is recorded, namely from the communicator to the recipient (the introduction of the concept of “feedback” does not change the essence of the matter), another significant omission arises here. Whenever we consider human communication from the point of view of information theory, only the formal side of the matter is fixed: how information is transmitted, while in the conditions of human communication information is not only transmitted, but also formed, clarified, and developed.

Let us formulate the specific features of the process of social communication:

1. Communication cannot be considered only as the sending of information by a transmitting system and its reception by another system because, in contrast to the simple “movement of information” between two devices, here we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom is an active subject: mutual informing them involves establishing joint activities.

This means that each participant in the communicative process also assumes activity in his partner; he cannot consider him as a certain object. The other participant also appears as a subject, and it follows that when sending him information, it is necessary to focus on him, i.e. analyze his motives, goals, attitudes (except, of course, the analysis of one’s own goals, motives, attitudes), “address” him, in the words of V.N. Myasishcheva. Schematically, communication can be depicted as an intersubjective process. But in this case, it must be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received coming from the other partner. Therefore, in the communication process there is not a simple movement of information, but at least an active exchange of it. The main “add” in a specifically human exchange of information is that the significance of information plays a special role here for each participant in communication (Andreeva, 1981), because people not only “exchange” meanings, but, as A.N. Leontyev, strive to develop general meaning(Leontyev, 1972). This is only possible if the information is not just accepted, but also understood and meaningful. The essence of the communication process is not just mutual information, but joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are actually given in unity.

2. The nature of the exchange of information between people, and not cybernetic devices, is determined by the fact that through a system of signs partners can influence each other, i.e. the exchange of information involves influencing the partner’s behavior and changing the states of the participants in the communicative process; in this sense, “a sign in communication is like a tool in work” (A.N. Leontyev, 1972).

The communicative influence that arises here is nothing more than the psychological influence of one communicator on another with the aim of changing his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact is. This means that when exchanging information, the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication changes. Nothing similar happens in “purely” information processes.

3. Communicative influence is possible only when the communicator and the recipient have a single or similar system of codification and decodification. In everyday language this is expressed in the words: “everyone should speak the same language.” To describe this situation social psychology borrows from linguistics the term “thesaurus”, meaning common system values ​​accepted by all members of the group. But, even knowing the meanings of the same words, people can understand them differently: social, political, age characteristics can be the reason for this. Also L.S. Vygotsky noted that thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words. This is well explained by J. Miller using an everyday example: A husband greeted at the door with his wife’s words: “I bought some light bulbs today” should not limit himself to their literal interpretation: he must understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and replace the burnt out light bulb.

4. Possibility of communication barriers. They are not associated with vulnerabilities in any communication channel or with errors in encoding and decoding, but are of a social or psychological nature.

On the one hand, such barriers may arise due to the lack of understanding of the communication situation, caused not simply in different languages, spoken by the participants in the communicative process, but with deeper differences that exist between the partners. These can be social, political, religious, professional differences, which not only give rise to different interpretations of the same concepts used in the process of communication, but also generally different attitudes, worldviews, and worldviews. These kinds of barriers are generated by objective social reasons. Communication in this case demonstrates its characteristic that it is only a side of communication. Naturally, the communication process takes place even in the presence of these barriers: even military opponents negotiate. But the whole situation of the communicative act is significantly complicated by their presence.

On the other hand, barriers to communication may also be of a more purely psychological nature. They can arise either as a result of the individual psychological characteristics of the communicators (for example, excessive shyness of one of them (Zimbardo, 1992), the secrecy of another, the presence of a trait in someone called “uncommunicativeness”) or due to the special kind of psychological relationships that have developed between the communicants: hostility towards each other, mistrust, etc. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude, which is naturally absent in cybernetic systems, becomes especially clear.

Thus, G.M. Andreeva makes the following conclusion: the named features of human communication do not allow us to consider it only in terms of information theory. Some terms from this theory used to describe this process always require a certain rethinking, at least those amendments discussed above. However, all this does not exclude the possibility of borrowing a number of concepts from information theory.

For example, when constructing a typology of communication processes, it is advisable to use the concept of “signal directionality.” In communication theory, this term allows us to highlight:

A) axial axis axis), when signals are sent to single information receivers, i.e. to individuals;

b) retial communication process (from lat. rete– network), when signals are sent to many likely recipients (Brudny, 1977). In the case of retial communication, it is also not just the transfer of information that occurs, but also the social orientation of the participants in the communicative process. IN lately Research of real communication is of particular importance in connection with the intensive development of the media and their powerful influencing effect.

The information itself coming from the communicator can be of two types: motivating and stating.

Incentive information manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It is designed to evoke, stimulate some kind of action. It assumes:

ü activation (when the listener begins to act in a given direction);

ü interdiction (prohibition of undesirable activities);

ü destabilization (mismatch or violation of certain forms of behavior).

The same information can cause different attitudes towards it. For example, the teacher reports that before the end test work 5 minutes left. For some, this is a signal to finish writing quickly (activation), for others, who were talking, waiting for the opportunity to copy, a termination of the conversation (interdiction), for others, who knew nothing at all, an understanding that they won’t have time to do anything anyway and can already put it off handle to the side (destabilization).

Ascertaining information manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply a direct change in behavior, although it indirectly contributes to this. We listen to the radio every day, but this does not mean that our behavior changes.

Communication models are diagrams that represent the communication process. It should be noted that communication models are used in two senses (Fundamentals of Communication Theory, 2007):

ü firstly, as a research technique, as conceptual device, the main purpose of which is to explain communication processes;

ü secondly, as a schematized, simplified reflection of the real communication process, necessary as a tool focused primarily on managing the simulated process. In this case, the model acts as an algorithm within which this process and is carried out.

There are a huge number of communication models, each of which in its own way reflects the structure, elements and dynamics of the communication process. Let's look at some models that are most important from the point of view of the communication process. Most of them were created in the twentieth century. But the first known model was proposed by Aristotle.

Aristotle's model. In “Rhetoric,” the ancient Greek philosopher wrote: “Speech is composed of three elements: from the speaker himself, from the subject about which he speaks, and from the person to whom he addresses; this is the final goal of everything (I mean the listener)” (Aristotle, 2000). In the conditions of a predominantly oral ancient culture, oratory naturally comes to the fore. However, it should be noted that in the time of Aristotle, the speech of orators began to be intended not only for utterance, but also for reading. Aristotle specifically mentions this in “Rhetoric” (book 3, chapter 12), noting the self-sufficiency of written speech. Thus, this model universal - it reflects the communicative act in both oral and written forms. This act identifies three main elements of communication (Figure 3).

Rice. 3. Aristotle's model

These elements, although in modified form, are reproduced in subsequent communication models. The Greek tradition of the art of rhetoric was continued in the Middle Ages and remained virtually unchanged until the twentieth century.

Linear model. The most widely used linear model (Figure 4), proposed by N. Wiener’s associates - K. Shannon and W. Weaver (1949). This model views communication as an activity in which the sender encodes ideas and feelings into a particular type of message and then sends it to the recipient using some channel (speech, written message, etc.). If the message reaches the recipient, overcoming various kinds of “noise” or interference, then the communication is considered successful. This model draws attention to some important points in the process of communication. This is the influence of the channel through which the message is received on the recipient's reaction. Thus, a declaration of love when meeting face to face will be perceived completely differently than something read in a letter or heard on the phone. The linear model also pays attention to “noise,” interference that distorts messages.

The structure of communicative interaction develops in accordance with the passage of information through the communication chain: addressee → message encoding → movement through channels → decoding (decoding) → addressee. Those. This model completely copied the communication system of two radio transmitters. According to this scheme, any communication system is an interaction of main parts:

1) source of information (sender, communicator, addressee);

2) receiver (recipient, recipient, addressee);

3) communication channel;

4) message.

In addition, the model provided for another almost always present factor that complicates information exchange - the background, which is formed by various noises, interference, etc. (Wiener, 1958).

This scheme allows us to consider communication as a unidirectional process - from sender to recipient. However, this method of transmitting messages is more typical for written communication, the media, or for communication in which the partner is perceived as an object of influence.

Soon after the publication of K. Shannon's article, sociologist Harold Lasswell, analyzing communication between people, created a model of the communication process, which already included 5 elements:

1) Who? (transmits message) – communicator

2) What? (transmitted) – message (text)

3) How? (transfer in progress) – channel

4) To whom? (message sent) – audience

5) With what effect? – efficiency (feedback).

The monologue of Lasswell's formula is due to the fact that it expresses a behavioral approach to communication as the direct impact of the communicator's messages on the recipient, who acts only as an object reacting to the information received

Interactive (circular, circular) model. This model reflects the communicator’s reaction to the source’s message in the form of feedback. It is feedback that makes communication a two-way process (dialogue), allowing each party to adjust their actions and goals (Fundamentals of Communication Theory, 2007).

This model was proposed in the works of W. Schramm and C. Osgood. Schramm believed that it would be too misleading to view communication as a linear process with a beginning and an end. In reality this is a never-ending process; To correct the inaccuracy of linear models, it is necessary to emphasize the cyclical nature of communication, when its participants (source and recipient) periodically change places.

Thus, communication is interpreted as a two-way communication process, when the sender and recipient of information equally interact with each other, exchanging messages (signals).

The interactive (circular) model is presented in Figure 5.

Rice. 5. Interactive (circular) communication model

This model clearly demonstrates that when exchanging messages, the “source” and “recipient” alternate roles, as a result of which communication turns into a dialogue.

The authors paid special attention to the problem of message interpretation. If linear models were primarily aimed at studying the accuracy of transmitted signals, achieved by minimizing technical noise in the channel, then in the circular model the main emphasis is placed on the interpretation of the message. Since each participant in communication approaches deciphering the meaning of the transmitted message with his own criteria, “semantic noise” arises in the communication process. It is possible to minimize its consequences and make communication more effective (effective) only through “feedback”.

If the first two models depict communication as a series of discrete acts with a beginning and an end, in which the sender essentially determines the actions of the recipient, then transaction model(Figure 6.) represents communication as a process of simultaneous sending and receiving messages by communicators. At any given moment, we are able to receive and decode another person's messages, respond to their behavior, and at the same time the other person receives and responds to our messages. Thus, the act of communication is difficult to separate from the events that precede and follow it. This model draws attention to the fact that communication is a process in which people form relationships by constantly interacting with each other.

Rice. 6. Transactional model of communication

Model of two-channel structure of speech communication. Domestic psychologist V.P. Morozov proposed an original model in which communication is presented as a two-channel system, but not in a technological, but in a psychological sense. In general, he adheres to the widely accepted Shannon scheme, in which any communication system is an interaction of three main parts:

1) source of information (in in this case talking man, generating and transmitting this information);

2) a signal carrying information in a specific form encoded (in this case, in the form of acoustic features of speech and voice);

3) a receiver that has the ability to decode the specified information (in this case, the auditory system, brain and psyche of the subject of perception - the listener).

However, bearing in mind the complex verbal-nonverbal nature of the speech communication system and a number of fundamental differences nonverbal communication from speech itself, V.P. Morozov presents communication as a two-channel process, consisting of verbal, actual speech linguistic, and non-verbal extralinguistic channels.

The peculiarity of this model is that it takes into account the role of functional asymmetry of the human brain, which is the physiological basis for the independence of the nonverbal function of speech from the verbal one. Research on asymmetry, begun in the 19th century. and continued in our time by R. Sperry, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for these works in 1981, proved the leading role of the left hemisphere of the brain in ensuring the verbal function of the psyche. At the same time, a number of modern foreign and domestic works, including V.P. Morozov, indicate the leading role of the right hemisphere in the processing of nonverbal information.

Rice. 7. Two-channel structure of speech communication

At the same time, there is close interaction and mutual influence between the verbal and nonverbal channels, which is indicated in the diagram by vertical arrows. Two categories of feedback (FC) in the diagram are designated: FC-1 - the system of the speaker’s own sensory self-control of the processes of formation of his speech, and FC-2 - the speaker’s control of the results of the impact of his speech on the listener (Morozov, 1988).

The “ISKP” (SMCR) model was proposed by the American communication specialist D. Berlo in 1960. It is called by the name of its elements in the form of the abbreviation “ISKP” (SMCR):

SOURCE – MESSAGE – CHANNEL – RECIPIENT

In the literature there is another name for it, based on the place of its creation - the Stanford model of communication.

According to Berlo, this model should contain a detailed analysis of each of the elements of the communication process. Source And recipient are analyzed from the point of view of their communication skills, knowledge, their social affiliation, cultural characteristics, and attitudes. Message is considered from the perspective of its elements and structure, content and method of coding. Communication channels, according to Berlo, are the five senses through which information is received.

According to M.A. Vasilika (2007), this model is the simplest and most convenient for getting to know the features of the communicative process, thanks to:

ü the presence of precisely these components in almost all other descriptions of communication;

ü quite clearly manifested combinations of these very elements in specific communicative acts;

ü its practical orientation, which makes it possible to develop a specific communication strategy taking into account the characteristics of all its constituent elements.

Thus, the ISKP model can be considered basic when considering individual elements communication process. However, it has the same drawback as a number of models described above: it is monological, unidirectional - it cannot be considered complete without taking into account the result of communication and feedback. Consequently, when describing a real communicative act, this model should be supplemented by a number of units under study - elements.