Completed table with comparative characteristics of computer generations. Cheat sheet: Main characteristics of computers of different generations

This principle is implemented by the presence of RAM. This is a fundamentally important decision, because Initially, automatic computing devices were designed in such a way that commands either came from an input device or were hardwired directly into electrical circuits, and in order to solve a new problem it was necessary to resolder the circuits. Charles Babbage also suggested that only numbers should be stored in the “warehouse” (memory), and commands should be entered using punched cards. The solution that commands and data are stored in memory on an equal basis was implemented in the first electronic computers.

Program control principle

This principle is implemented by the presence of the control system. Principle program control is that the computer runs a program stored in memory. The program consists of commands (link to figure).

Sequential execution of operations

Sequential execution of operations means that commands are executed one after another, the execution of a new command begins after the completion of the previous one. IN modern computers along with sequential processing It is possible to process several processes in parallel, which significantly speeds up work and expands the capabilities of the computer. But this was not the case in the first developments.

Binary coding

Information in a computer is stored and processed in encrypted form. The binary number system is used for coding. This is explained by the convenience of the technical implementation of binary characters 0 and 1, which are interpreted by electrical signals of high and low voltage, and the ease of operation with binary numbers. It should be noted that this principle was not initially implemented in all computers. The firstborn of American computing technology, the Mark 1 computer, performed calculations in decimal system, but technical implementation decimal encoding was very complex, and was later abandoned.

Use of electronic elements and electrical circuits

Usage electronic elements and electrical circuits provides the greatest reliability of computer operation compared to electromechanical relays that were used in the first designs of computing devices.

Generations of computers and prospects for the development of computer technology

In the history of the development of computing tools, three historical stages can be distinguished, the time frames of which are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Stages of development of computing tools

Comparing these time periods, we can say that the time during which humanity made a colossal leap from the first computers to modern super-computers is a moment “between the past and the future.”

The period from 1945 to mid. 90s The development of computer technology is usually divided into four stages, which are characterized by qualitative changes in hardware and software Oh. These stages are called generations. The main characteristics of each generation are presented in Table 2. However, it should be noted that the boundaries between generations are not clearly defined. In the process of development of computer technology, computer models were developed that have the characteristics of a new generation.

Table 2 Computer generations

Electronic computer (computer) is a device for processing information. Information processing refers to the process of converting source data into results.

The fundamental feature modern computers What distinguishes them from all previously used computer technology is their ability to work automatically according to a given program without direct human participation in the computing process.

A computer is the most effective means for solving economic problems. The use of computers allows: to increase the level of automation of managerial work; reduce time to receive necessary solutions; dramatically reduce the number of errors in calculations; increase the reliability of management personnel; makes it possible to increase the volume of processed information; search for optimal solutions; perform results control functions; transmit data over a distance; create automated data banks; perform data analysis in the process of information processing, etc.

There are 4 main generations of computers: . But dividing computer technology into generations is a very conditional, loose classification according to the degree of development of hardware and software, as well as methods of communicating with a computer. The idea of ​​dividing cars into generations was brought to life by the fact that during the short history of its development computer equipment has undergone a great evolution, both in the sense element base(lamps, transistors, microcircuits, etc.), and in the sense of changing its structure, the emergence of new opportunities, expanding the areas of application and nature of use.

TO FIRST GENERATION (1945-1955) include vehicles built on electronic incandescent lamps. These machines were very expensive, took up huge areas, were not entirely reliable in operation, had a low information processing speed and could store very little data. Each machine has its own language, no OS. Punched cards, punched tapes, and magnetic tapes were used. They were created in single copies and were used mainly for military and scientific purposes. Typical examples of first generation machines include: American computers UNIVAC, IBM-701, IBM-704, as well as Soviet BESM and M-20 vehicles. The typical data processing speed for first-generation machines was 10-20 thousand operations per second.

Co. TO THE SECOND GENERATION (1955-1965) include machines built on transistor elements. These machines have significantly reduced their cost and size, and increased their reliability, operating speed, and the amount of stored information. The data processing speed of second-generation machines has increased to 1 million operations per second. The first operating systems and the first programming languages ​​appeared: Forton (1957), Algon (1959). Information storage media: magnetic drums, magnetic disks. Representatives: IBM 604, 608, 702.

Cars THIRD GENERATION (1965-1980) made on integrated circuits. The area of ​​such a scheme is about one square millimeter, but in its own way functionality an integrated circuit is equivalent to hundreds or thousands of transistor elements. Due to its very small size and thickness, an integrated circuit is sometimes called microcircuit, and also chip(chip - thin piece). The move from transistors to integrated circuits changed the cost, size, reliability, speed, and capacity of machines. These are machines of the IBM/360 family. The popularity of these machines turned out to be so great that all over the world they began to be copied or produced with similar functionality and the same methods of encoding and processing information. Moreover, programs prepared for execution on IBM machines were successfully executed on their analogues, just as programs written for execution on analogues could be executed on IBM machines. Such machine models are usually called software-compatible. In our country, the EC series of computers, which included about two dozen models of different power, was such software compatible with the IBM/360 family. Starting from the third generation, computers become universally available and are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems. Characteristic of this time is the collective use of machines, since they are still quite expensive, occupy large areas and require complex and expensive maintenance. The carriers of initial information are still punched cards and punched tapes, although a significant amount of information is already concentrated on magnetic media - disks and tapes. The information processing speed of third-generation machines reached several million operations per second. RAM appeared - hundreds of KB. Programming languages: BASIC (1965), Pascal (1970), C (1972). Program compatibility has appeared.

FOURTH GENERATION (1980-present). There is a transition from conventional integrated circuits to large-scale integrated circuits and ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (LSI and VLSI). If ordinary integrated circuits are equivalent to thousands of transistor elements, then large integrated circuits are already replacing tens and hundreds of thousands of such elements. Among them, we should mention the IBM/370 family of machines, as well as the IBM 196 model, the speed of which reached 15 million operations per second. Domestic representatives of fourth generation machines are machines of the Elbrus family. A distinctive feature of the fourth generation is the presence in one machine of several (usually 2-6, sometimes up to several hundred or even thousands) central, main information processing devices - processors that can duplicate each other or independently perform calculations. This structure allows you to dramatically increase the reliability of machines and the speed of calculations. Another important feature is the emergence of powerful tools that ensure the operation of computer networks. This made it possible to subsequently create and develop global, worldwide computer networks on their basis. Supercomputers (spacecraft) appeared, personal computers. Non-professional users appeared. RAM up to several GB. Multiprocessor systems, computer networks, multimedia (graphics, animation, sound).

In computers FIFTH GENERATION There will be a qualitative transition from data processing to knowledge processing. The architecture of future generation computers will contain two main blocks. One of them is a traditional computer. But now it is deprived of communication with the user. This connection is carried out by a block called the “intelligent interface”. Its task is to understand text written in natural language and containing the condition of the problem, and translate it into a working computer program.

Novruzlu Elnura 10 a

1. Electronic computer (computer)

2.

2.1. Icomputer generation

2.2. IIcomputer generation

2.3. IIIcomputer generation

2.4. IV computer generation

2.5. V computer generation

3. Computer generation (table)

List of used literature

1. GENERATION COMPUTER

Download:

Preview:

MBOU Astrakhan secondary school No. 52

ABSTRACT on the topic:

"ELECTRONIC COMPUTING MACHINE"

Prepared

10th grade student

Novruzlu Elnura

Checked by a computer science and ICT teacher

Komissarova I.M.

Astrakhan, 2013

Page

1. Electronic computer (computer) 3
2. Electronic stage of computer technology development

1. I generation computer 3
2. II generation computers 4-5
3. III generation of computers 5-7
4. IV generation of computers 7-8
5. V generation computers 8-10

1. Computer generation (table) 11
2. References 12

1. ELECTRONIC COMPUTING MACHINE (COMPUTER)

An electronic computer (computer) is a high-speed computer that solves mathematical and logical problems with great accuracy when performing several tens of thousands of operations per second. The technical basis of a computer is electronic circuits. A computer has a storage device (memory) designed for receiving, storing and issuing information, an arithmetic device for operations on numbers, and a control device. Each machine has a specific command system.

1. ELECTRONIC STAGE OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

1. I generation of computers

It is generally accepted that the first generation of computers appeared during the Second World War after 1943, although the first working representative should be considered the V-1 (Z1) machine of Konrad Zuse, demonstrated to friends and relatives in 1938. It was the first electronic (built on homemade analogues of relays) machine, capricious to use and unreliable in calculations. In May 1941, in Berlin, Zuse presented the Z3 car, which caused delight among specialists. Despite a number of shortcomings, it was the first computer that, under different circumstances, could have been a commercial success. However, the first computers are considered to be the English Colossus (1943) and the American ENIAC (1945). ENIAC was the first vacuum tube computer.

Characteristics

• Element base –electron vacuum tubes.
• Connection of elements –wire mounted installation.
• Dimensions – The computer is made in the form of huge cabinets.
• Performance –10-20 thousand operations per second.
• Operation is difficult due to frequent failure of vacuum tubes.
• Programming – machine codes.
• RAM – up to 2 KB.
• Data input and output usingpunched cards, punched tape.

1. II generation of computers

The second generation of computers is the transition to a transistor element base, the emergence of the first mini-computers. The principle of autonomy is further developed - it is already implemented at the level of individual devices, which is expressed in their modular structure. I/O devices are equipped with their own control units (called controllers), which made it possible to free the central control unit from managing I/O operations. Improvement and reduction in the cost of computers led to a decrease in the specific cost of computer time and computing resources in the total cost of an automated solution to a data processing problem, while at the same time the costs of program development (i.e. programming) almost did not decrease, and in some cases tended to increase . Thus, there was a tendency towards efficient programming, which began to be implemented in the second generation of computers and is being developed to the present day. Library-based development begins standard programs integrated systems that have the property of portability, i.e. functioning on a computer different brands. The most frequently used software tools are allocated in the software for solving problems of a certain class. The technology for executing programs on a computer is being improved: special software tools are being created - system software. The purpose of creating system software is to speed up and simplify the processor's transition from one task to another. The first batch processing systems appeared, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor. Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs, designed to control the computing process. During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A set of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package. This element is still alive: the so-called MS DOS batch (or command) files are nothing more than packages of tasks (the extension in their name bat is an abbreviation for the English word batch, which means package). Second-generation domestic computers include Promin, Minsk, Hrazdan, and Mir.

Characteristics

• Element base –semiconductor elements (transistors).
• Connection of elements –printed circuit boards and surface mounting.
• Dimensions – .
• Performance –100-500 thousand operations per second.
• Operation – computing centerswith a special staff of service personnel, a new specialty appeared - computer operator.
• Programming –in algorithmic languages, the emergence of OS.
• RAM – 2 – 32 KB.
• Introduced time sharing principle.
• Introduced microprogram control principle.
• Flaw - software incompatibility.

1. III generation of computers

The development in the 60s of integrated circuits - entire devices and assemblies of tens and hundreds of transistors made on a single semiconductor crystal (what is now called microcircuits) led to the creation of 3rd generation computers. At the same time, semiconductor memory appeared, which is still used in personal computers as operational memory. The use of integrated circuits has greatly increased the capabilities of computers. Now the central processor has the ability to work in parallel and control numerous peripheral devices. Computers could simultaneously process several programs (the principle of multiprogramming). As a result of the implementation of the multiprogramming principle, it became possible to work in time-sharing mode in an interactive mode. Users remote from the computer were given the opportunity, independently of each other, to quickly interact with the machine. During these years, computer production acquired an industrial scale. IBM, which had become a leader, was the first to implement a family of computers - a series of computers that were fully compatible with each other, from the smallest, the size of a small closet (they had never made anything smaller then), to the most powerful and expensive models. The most common in those years was the System/360 family from IBM. Starting with the 3rd generation computers, the development of serial computers has become traditional. Although machines of the same series were very different from each other in capabilities and performance, they were informationally, software and hardware compatible. For example, the CMEA countries produced computers of a single series (“ES EVM”) “ES-1022”, “ES-1030”, “ES-1033”, “ES-1046”, “ES-1061”, “ES-1066” etc. The performance of these machines reached from 500 thousand to 2 million operations per second, the amount of RAM reached from 8 MB to 192 MB. Computers of this generation also include “IVM-370”, “Electronics - 100/25”, “Electronics - 79”, “SM-3”, “SM-4”, etc. For the computer series it was greatly expanded software (operating systems, high-level programming languages, application programs, etc.). The low quality of electronic components was the weak point of third-generation Soviet computers. Hence the constant lag behind Western developments in terms of speed, weight and dimensions, but, as the SM developers insist, not in functionality. In order to compensate for this lag, special processors were developed that made it possible to build high-performance systems for specific tasks. Equipped with a special Fourier transform processor, SM-4, for example, was used for radar mapping of Venus. Back in the early 60s, the first minicomputers appeared - small, low-power computers affordable for small firms or laboratories. Minicomputers represented the first step towards personal computers, prototypes of which were released only in the mid-70s. The well-known family of PDP minicomputers from Digital Equipment served as the prototype for the Soviet SM series of machines. Meanwhile, the number of elements and connections between them that fit in one microcircuit was constantly growing, and in the 70s, integrated circuits already contained thousands of transistors. This made it possible to combine most of the computer components into a single small part - which is what Intel did in 1971, releasing the first microprocessor, which was intended for desktop calculators that had just appeared. This invention was destined to create a real revolution in the next decade - after all, the microprocessor is the heart and soul of the modern personal computer. But that’s not all - truly, the turn of the 60s and 70s was a fateful time. In 1969, the first global computer network- the embryo of what we now call the Internet. And in the same 1969, an operating room appeared simultaneously Unix system and the C programming language, which had a huge impact on the software world and still maintains its leading position.

Characteristics

• Element base –integrated circuits.
• Connection of elements – printed circuit boards.
• Dimensions – The computer is made in the form of identical racks.
• Performance –1-10 mil. operations per second.
• Operation – computer centers, display classes, a new specialty - systems programmer.
• Programming –algorithmic languages, OS.
• RAM – 64 KB.
• Applicable time-sharing principle, modularity principle, microprogram control principle, trunking principle.
• Appearance magnetic disks, displays, plotters.

1. IV generation of computers

Unfortunately, starting from the mid-1970s, the orderly picture of generational change has been disrupted. There are fewer and fewer fundamental innovations in computer science. Progress is proceeding mainly along the path of developing what has already been invented and thought up - primarily through increasing power and miniaturization of the element base and the computers themselves. The period since 1975 is generally considered to be the fourth generation of computers. Their elemental base was large integrated circuits (LSI. Up to 100 thousand elements are integrated in one crystal). The speed of these machines was tens of millions of operations per second, and RAM reached hundreds of MB. Microprocessors (1971 by Intel), microcomputers and personal computers appeared. Utility use of power has become possible different cars(connecting machines into a single computing node and working with time sharing). However, there is another opinion - many believe that the achievements of the period 1975-1985. not large enough to be considered an equal generation. Proponents of this point of view call this decade belonging to the “third and a half” generation of computers. And only since 1985, when super-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI) appeared. The crystal of such a circuit can accommodate up to 10 million elements. The years of life of the fourth generation itself, which is still alive today, should be counted.

1st direction - the creation of supercomputers - complexes of multiprocessor machines. The speed of such machines reaches several billion operations per second. They are capable of processing huge amounts of information. This includes the complexes ILLIAS-4, CRAY, CYBER, Elbrus-1, Elbrus-2, etc. Multiprocessor computing complexes (MCC) Elbrus-2 were actively used in the Soviet Union in areas requiring a large volume of calculations, before everything in the defense industry. Elbrus-2 computer systems were operated at the Space Flight Control Center and at nuclear research centers. Finally, it was the Elbrus-2 complexes that have been used in the missile defense system and at other military facilities since 1991.

2nd direction - further development on the basis of LSI and VLSI microcomputers and personal computers (PC). The first representatives of these machines are Apple, IBM - PC (XT, AT, PS /2), Iskra, Elektronika, Mazovia, Agat, ES-1840, ES-1841, etc. Starting from this generation, computers began to be called computers everywhere. And the word “computerization” has firmly entered our everyday life. Thanks to the emergence and development of personal computers (PCs), computing technology is becoming truly widespread and accessible to the public. A paradoxical situation is emerging: despite the fact that personal and minicomputers still lag behind large machines in all respects, the lion's share of innovations is graphics user interface, new peripheral devices, global networks- owe their appearance and development to precisely this “frivolous” technique. Large computers and supercomputers, of course, have not died out and continue to develop. But now they no longer dominate the computer arena as they once did.

Characteristics

• Element base –large integrated circuits (LSI).
• Connection of elements – printed circuit boards.
• Dimensions – compact computers, laptops.
• Performance –10-100 million operations per second.
• Operation – multiprocessor and multi-machine systems, any computer users.
• Programming –databases and data banks.
• RAM – 2-5 MB.
• Telecommunication data processing, integration into computer networks.

1. V generation of computers

The fifth generation computer is the computer of the future. The development program for the so-called fifth generation of computers was adopted in Japan in 1982. It was assumed that by 1991 fundamentally new computers would be created, focused on solving problems artificial intelligence. With the help of the Prolog language and innovations in computer design, it was planned to come close to solving one of the main problems of this branch of computer science - the problem of storing and processing knowledge. In short, for fifth-generation computers there would be no need to write programs, but it would be enough to explain in “almost natural” language what is required of them. It is assumed that their elemental base will not be VLSI, but devices created on their basis with elements of artificial intelligence. To increase memory and speed, advances in optoelectronics and bioprocessors will be used. The fifth generation computers are posed with completely different tasks than during the development of all previous computers. If the developers of computers from generations I to IV were faced with such tasks as increasing productivity in the field of numerical calculations, achieving large capacity memory, then the main task of the developers of V generation computers is to create artificial intelligence of the machine (the ability to draw logical conclusions from the presented facts), to develop the “intellectualization” of computers - to eliminate the barrier between man and computer.

Unfortunately, the Japanese fifth-generation computer project repeated the tragic fate of early research in the field of artificial intelligence. More than 50 billion yen of investment were wasted, the project was discontinued, and the developed devices turned out to be no higher in performance than mass-produced systems of that time. However, the research conducted during the project and the experience gained in knowledge representation and parallel inference methods have greatly helped progress in the field of artificial intelligence systems in general. Already now, computers are able to perceive information from handwritten or printed text, from forms, from the human voice, recognize the user by voice, and translate from one language to another. This allows all users to communicate with computers, even those who do not have special knowledge in this area. Many of the advances that artificial intelligence has made are being used in industry and the business world. Expert systems and neural networks effectively used for classification tasks (SPAM filtering, text categorization, etc.). Genetic algorithms conscientiously serve humans (used, for example, to optimize portfolios in investment activities), robotics (industry, production, everyday life - everywhere it has put its cybernetic hand), as well as multi-agent systems. Other areas of artificial intelligence are also not asleep, for example, distributed knowledge representation and problem solving on the Internet: thanks to them, in the next few years we can expect a revolution in a number of areas of human activity.

Software

Examples of computers

since 1946

Electron tube

10-20 thousand operations in 1 s.

2 KB

Punched tapes

Punch cards

Machine codes

UNIVAC, MESM, BESM, STRELA

since 1955

Transistor

100-1000 thousand operations in 1 s.

2 – 32 KB

Magnetic tape, magnetic drums

Algorithmic languages, operating systems

"Tradis"

M-20

IBM-701

BESM-6

since 1966

Integrated Circuit (IC)

1-10 million operations in 1 s.

64 KB

Multi-terminal systems

Operating systems

EC-1030

IBM-360

BESM-6

since 1975

Large scale integrated circuit (LSI)

1-100 million operations in 1 s.

1-64 KB

PC networks

Databases and data banks

IBM-386

IBM-486

Cornet

UKSC

since the 90s of the 20th century.

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI)

More than 100 million operations in 1 second.

Optical and laser devices

Expert systems

4. LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. http://evm-story.narod.ru/#P0

1. http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/EVM

In accordance with the generally accepted methodology for assessing the development of computer technology, the first generation was considered to be tube computers, the second - transistor ones, the third - computers on integrated circuits, and the fourth - using microprocessors.

First generation of computers (1948–1958) was created on the basis of vacuum electric lamps, the machine was controlled from a remote control and punch cards using machine codes. These computers were housed in several large metal cabinets that occupied entire rooms.

The elemental base of machines of this generation were vacuum tubes - diodes and triodes. The machines were intended to solve relatively simple scientific and technical problems. This generation of computers includes: MESM, BESM-1, M-1, M-2, M-Z, “Strela”, Minsk-1, Ural-1, Ural-2, Ural-3, M-20, “ Setun", BESM-2, "Hrazdan" (Fig. 2.1).

The first generation computers were of considerable size, consumed a lot of power, had low reliability and weak software. Their speed did not exceed 2–3 thousand operations per second, the RAM capacity was 2 kb or 2048 machine words (1 kb = 1024) with a length of 48 binary characters.

Second generation of computers (1959–1967) appeared in the 60s. XX century. Computer elements were made on the basis of semiconductor transistors (Fig. 2.2, 2.3). These machines processed information under the control of programs in Assembly language. Data and programs were entered from punched cards and punched tapes.

The elemental base of machines of this generation were semiconductor devices. The machines were intended to solve various labor-intensive scientific and technical problems, as well as to control technological processes in production. The appearance of semiconductor elements in electronic circuits significantly increased the capacity of RAM, reliability and speed of the computer. Dimensions, weight and power consumption have decreased. With the advent of second-generation machines, the scope of use of electronic computer technology has expanded significantly, mainly due to the development of software.

Third generation of computers (1968–1973). The elemental base of a computer is small integrated circuits (MICs), containing hundreds or thousands of transistors on one plate. The operation of these machines was controlled from alphanumeric terminals. High-level languages ​​and Assembly were used for control. Data and programs were entered both from the terminal and from punched cards and punched tapes. The machines were intended for wide use in various fields of science and technology (calculations, production management, moving objects, etc.). Thanks to integrated circuits, it was possible to significantly improve the technical and operational characteristics of computers and sharply reduce hardware prices. For example, third-generation machines, compared to second-generation machines, have a larger amount of RAM, increased performance, increased reliability, and reduced power consumption, footprint and weight.

Fourth generation of computers (1974–1982). The elemental base of a computer is large integrated circuits (LSI). Most bright representatives fourth generation computers – personal computers (PCs). Communication with the user was carried out through a color graphic display using high-level languages.

The machines were intended to dramatically increase labor productivity in science, production, management, healthcare, service and everyday life. High degree of integration contributed to increased packaging density electronic equipment, increasing its reliability, which led to an increase in the speed of the computer and a decrease in its cost. All this has a significant impact on the logical structure (architecture) of the computer and its software. The connection between the structure of the machine and its software becomes closer, especially the operating system (OS) (or monitor) - a set of programs that organize continuous work machines without human intervention

Fifth generation of computers (1990–present) created on the basis of ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI), which are distinguished by the colossal density of logic elements on the chip.

6. Organization computer systems

Processors

In Fig. 2.1 shows the structure regular computer with a bus organization. The central processing unit is the brain of the computer. Its job is to execute programs located in main memory. It recalls commands from memory, determines their type, and then executes them one by one. The components are connected by a bus, which is a set of wires connected in parallel through which addresses, data and control signals are transmitted. Buses can be external (connecting the processor with memory and I/O devices) and internal.

Rice. 2.1. Diagram of a computer with one central processor and two input/output devices

The processor consists of several parts. The control unit is responsible for recalling commands from memory and determining their type. The arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic operations(such as addition) and logical operations(for example, logical AND).

Inside central processor there is a memory for storing intermediate results and some control commands. This memory consists of several registers, each of which performs a specific function. Typically the size of all registers is the same. Each register contains one number, which is limited by the size of the register. Registers are read and written very quickly because they are located inside the CPU.

The most important register is the program counter, which indicates which instruction to execute next. The name "program counter" is misleading because it doesn't count anything, but the term is used everywhere1. There is also a command register, which contains the command being executed in at the moment team. Most computers have other registers, some of which are multifunctional, while others perform only specific functions.

7. Software. Main memory.

The entire set of programs stored on all devices of the computer’s long-term memory constitutes it. software(BY).

System software;
- application software;
- instrumental software.

Table - Main characteristics of computers of various generations

Over the course of 50 years, several generations of computers have appeared, replacing each other. The rapid development of VT throughout the world is determined only by advanced element base and architectural solutions.
Since a computer is a system consisting of hardware and software, it is natural to understand a generation as computer models characterized by the same technological and software solutions(element base, logical architecture, software). Meanwhile, in a number of cases it turns out to be very difficult to classify VT by generation, because the line between them becomes more and more blurred from generation to generation.
First generation.
The element base is electronic tubes and relays; RAM was performed on flip-flops, later on ferrite cores. Reliability is low, a cooling system was required; Computers had significant dimensions. Performance - 5 - 30 thousand arithmetic op/s; Programming - in computer codes (machine code), later autocodes and assemblers appeared. Programming was carried out by a narrow circle of mathematicians, physicists, and electronics engineers. First generation computers were used mainly for scientific and technical calculations.

Second generation.
Semiconductor element base. Reliability and performance are significantly increased, dimensions and power consumption are reduced. Development of input/output facilities, external memory. A number of progressive architectural solutions and further development of programming technology - time sharing mode and multiprogramming mode (combining the work of the central processor for data processing and input/output channels, as well as parallelization of operations for fetching commands and data from memory)
Within the second generation, the differentiation of computers into small, medium and large began to clearly appear. The scope of application of computers to solve problems - planning, economic, management - has expanded significantly production processes etc.
Are being created automated systems management (ACS) of enterprises, entire industries and technological processes (APCS). The end of the 50s is characterized by the emergence of a number of problem-oriented high-level programming languages ​​(HLPs): FORTRAN, ALGOL-60, etc. Software development began in the creation of libraries of standard programs in various languages programming and for various purposes, monitors and dispatchers for controlling computer operating modes, planning its resources, which laid the foundation for the concepts of next-generation operating systems.

Third generation.
Element base on integrated circuits (IC). A series of computer models appear that are software compatible from the bottom up and have increasing capabilities from model to model. The logical architecture of computers and their peripheral equipment have become more complex, which has significantly expanded the functionality and computing capabilities. Operating systems (OS) become part of a computer. Many tasks of managing memory, input/output devices and other resources began to be taken over by the OS or directly by the computer hardware. Software is becoming powerful: database management systems (DBMS), design automation systems (CAD) for various purposes are appearing, automated control systems and process control systems are being improved. Much attention is paid to the creation of application program packages (APP) for various purposes.
Programming languages ​​and systems are developing. Examples: - series of IBM/360 models, USA, serial production-since 1964; -EU Computers, USSR and CMEA countries since 1972.
Fourth generation.
The element base is becoming large-scale (LSI) and ultra-large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Computers were already designed for the efficient use of software (for example, UNIX-like computers, in the best possible way immersed in a UNIX software environment; Prolog machines focused on artificial intelligence tasks); modern nuclear power plants. Telecommunications information processing is rapidly developing by improving the quality of communication channels using satellite communications. National and transnational information and computer networks are being created, which make it possible to talk about the beginning of the computerization of human society as a whole.
Further intellectualization of computer technology is determined by the creation of more developed human-computer interfaces, knowledge bases, expert systems, parallel programming systems, etc.
The element base has made it possible to achieve great success in miniaturization, increasing the reliability and performance of computers. Micro- and mini-computers have appeared, surpassing the capabilities of medium-sized and large computers of the previous generation at a significantly lower cost. The production technology of VLSI-based processors accelerated the pace of computer production and made it possible to introduce computers to the broad masses of society. With the advent of a universal processor on a single chip (microprocessor Intel-4004, 1971), the era of the PC began.
The first PC can be considered the Altair-8800, created on the basis of the Intel-8080, in 1974. E.Roberts. P. Allen and W. Gates created a translator from the popular Basic language, significantly increasing the intelligence of the first PC (later the famous company Microsoft Inc was founded). The face of the 4th generation is largely determined by the creation of supercomputers characterized by high performance (average speed 50 - 130 megaflops. 1 megaflops = 1 million operations per second with floating point) and non-traditional architecture (the principle of parallelization based on pipelined processing of commands) . Supercomputers are used in solving problems of mathematical physics, cosmology and astronomy, modeling complex systems etc. Since powerful computers play and will continue to play an important switching role in networks, network issues are often discussed together with questions on super-computers. Among the domestic developments of super-computers, one can name the Elbrus series machines, the PS-2000 and PS-3000 computing systems , containing up to 64 processors controlled by a common command stream, performance on a number of tasks was achieved on the order of 200 megaflops. At the same time, given the complexity of developing and implementing modern supercomputer projects that require intensive basic research in the field of computational sciences, electronic technologies, high production standards, serious financial costs, it seems very unlikely that in the foreseeable future the creation of domestic super-computers, in basic characteristics not inferior to the best foreign models.
It should be noted that with the transition to IP technology for computer production, the defining emphasis of generations is increasingly shifting from the element base to other indicators: logical architecture, software, user interface, application areas, etc.
Fifth generation.
Originates in the depths of the fourth generation and is largely determined by the results of the work of the Japanese Committee scientific research in the field of computers, published in 1981. According to this project, computers and computing systems of the fifth generation, in addition to high performance and reliability at a lower cost, fully provided by VLSI, etc. the latest technologies, must satisfy the following qualitatively new functional requirements:

· ensure ease of use of computers by implementing voice input/output systems; interactive information processing using natural languages; learning capabilities, associative constructions and logical conclusions;

· simplify the process of creating software by automating the synthesis of programs according to the specifications of the original requirements in natural languages

· improve the basic characteristics and performance qualities of computers to meet various social objectives, improve the cost-benefit ratio, speed, lightness, and compactness of computers; ensure their diversity, high adaptability to applications and reliability in operation.

Considering the complexity of the implementation of the tasks assigned to the fifth generation, it is quite possible to divide it into more visible and better felt stages, the first of which has been largely implemented within the framework of the current fourth generation.