Computers and personal computers. The misconception that a computer and a computer are “two big differences”

A computer (from the English computer - calculator) is a programmable electronic computing device designed for storing and transmitting information, as well as processing data. That is, a computer is a complex of software-controlled electronic devices.

The term " personal computer r" is a synonym for the abbreviation " computer"(electronic computer). When did they appear personal computers, the term computer soon fell out of use, being replaced by the term "computer", " PC" or " PC».

A computer can use calculations to process information according to a specific algorithm. In addition, software allows the computer to store, receive, and retrieve information, as well as output it to various input devices. The name of computers comes from their main function - computing, but today, in addition to computing, computers are used for processing information, as well as for games.

The computer circuit was proposed in 1949 by mathematician John von Neumann, and since then the principle of the device has remained almost unchanged.

According to von Neumann's principles, a computer should consist of the following devices:

an arithmetic logic unit that performs logical and arithmetic operations;

a storage device for storing data;

a control device that organizes the process of program execution;

information input/output devices.

Computer memory must consist of a certain number of numbered cells, each of which contains program instructions or processed data. Cells are available to all computer devices.

Most computers are designed using an open architecture principle:

a description of the configuration and operating principle of a PC, allowing you to assemble a computer from individual parts and assemblies;

the presence in the computer of expansion slots into which you can insert devices that comply with a given standard.

In most computers today, a problem is first described in an understandable way by providing information in binary form, and then it is processed using logic and simple algebra. Since almost all mathematics can be reduced to doing Boolean operations, then using quick electronic computer Most math problems can be solved. The result of calculations is presented to the user by information input devices - printers, lamp indicators, monitors, projectors.

However, it was found that computers cannot solve any mathematical problem. English mathematician Alan Turing described the first problems that could not be solved by a computer.

Applications of computers

The first computers were created only for calculations (as the name suggests), and the first high-level programming language was Fortran, which was intended only for performing mathematical calculations.

Then computers found another use - databases. First of all, banks and governments needed them. Databases required more complex computers with advanced information storage and input-output systems. The Cobol language was developed to meet these requirements. After some time, database management systems (DBMS) appeared, which had their own programming languages.

Another use of computers is to control various devices. This field has developed gradually, from highly specialized devices (often analog) to standard computer systems, with the help of which control programs are launched. In addition, more and more modern technology includes a control computer.

Today, the development of the computer has reached such a level that it is the main information tool both at home and in the office. Thus, almost all work with information is carried out through a computer - from typing texts to watching films. This also applies to storing and forwarding information.

Scientists use modern supercomputers to simulate complex biological and physical processes, such as climate change or nuclear reactions. Some projects are carried out using distributed computing, in which a large number of not very powerful computers simultaneously solve different parts of the same problem, thereby forming one powerful computer.

The most complex and not yet highly developed area of ​​​​using computers is artificial intelligence - the use of computers in solving problems that do not have a clear, relatively simple algorithm. Examples of such tasks are games, expert systems, and machine translation of text.

A computer (from the English computer - calculator) is a programmable electronic computing device designed for storing and transmitting information, as well as processing data. That is, a computer is a complex of software-controlled electronic devices.

The term “personal computer” is a synonym for the abbreviation “computer” (electronic computer). When personal computers appeared, the term mainframe soon fell out of use, being replaced by the term "computer", "PC" or "PC".

A computer can use calculations to process information according to a specific algorithm. In addition, software allows the computer to store, receive, and retrieve information, as well as output it to various input devices. The name of computers comes from their main function - computing, but today, in addition to computing, computers are used for processing information, as well as for games.

The computer circuit was proposed in 1949 by mathematician John von Neumann, and since then the principle of the device has remained almost unchanged.

According to von Neumann's principles, a computer should consist of the following devices:

an arithmetic logic unit that performs logical and arithmetic operations;

a storage device for storing data;

a control device that organizes the process of program execution;

information input/output devices.

Computer memory must consist of a certain number of numbered cells, each of which contains program instructions or data to be processed. Cells are available to all computer devices.

Most computers are designed using an open architecture principle:

a description of the configuration and operating principle of a PC, allowing you to assemble a computer from individual parts and assemblies;

the presence in the computer of expansion slots into which you can insert devices that comply with a given standard.

In most computers today, a problem is first described in an understandable way by providing information in binary form, and then it is processed using logic and simple algebra. Since almost all mathematics can be reduced to Boolean operations, most mathematical problems can be solved using a fast electronic computer. The result of calculations is presented to the user by information input devices - printers, lamp indicators, monitors, projectors.

However, it was found that computers cannot solve any mathematical problem. English mathematician Alan Turing described the first problems that could not be solved by a computer.

Applications of computers

The first computers were created only for calculations (as the name suggests), and the first high-level programming language was Fortran, which was intended only for performing mathematical calculations.

Then computers found another use - databases. First of all, banks and governments needed them. Databases required more complex computers with advanced information storage and input-output systems. The Cobol language was developed to meet these requirements. After some time, database management systems (DBMS) appeared, which had their own programming languages.

Another use of computers is to control various devices. The field has evolved gradually, from highly specialized devices (often analog) to standard computer systems that run control programs. In addition, more and more modern technology includes a control computer.

Today, the development of the computer has reached such a level that it is the main information tool both at home and in the office. Thus, almost all work with information is carried out through a computer - from typing texts to watching films. This also applies to storing and forwarding information.

Scientists use modern supercomputers to simulate complex biological and physical processes such as climate change or nuclear reactions. Some projects are carried out using distributed computing, in which a large number of not very powerful computers simultaneously solve different parts of the same problem, thereby forming one powerful computer.

The most complex and not yet highly developed area of ​​​​using computers is artificial intelligence - the use of computers in solving problems that do not have a clear, relatively simple algorithm. Examples of such tasks are games, expert systems, and machine translation of text.

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Test assignment - ICT assignments

sites.google.com

Final work: preparation of the abstract “History of the development of computer technology”

1. In a word processor, create a new document and sequentially copy the contents of the files into it Introduction.rtf, Beginning of the EBM.rtf era, First generation EBM.rtf, Second generation EBM.rtf, Third generation EBM.rtf, Fourth generation EBM.rtf, Conclusion .rtf.

2. Save the result of your work in a personal folder under the name Abstract.rtf.

3. Head each of the six sections of the document (the section names may be the same as the corresponding file names).

4. Format the document according to the requirements for the abstract.

5. Add the title page you previously prepared (Title.rtf) to the beginning of the document.

6. Add a header to the document pages with the title of the abstract.

7. After the words “The first electronic computer (computer)” in the section “The beginning of the computer era”, add a footnote in which you explain how the concepts of “computer” and “computer” are related.

8. Find information about S. A. Lebedev on the Internet and supplement the text of the abstract with it.

9. Find out when and by whom the first mass-produced personal computer was developed, and add this information to the appropriate section of the essay.

10. Find images of computers of different generations on the Internet. Insert one of the most interesting images into the appropriate sections.

11. Add to the abstract the section “Comparative characteristics of computer generations” and include a table in it:

12. Find the necessary information on the Internet and enter it in the appropriate cells of the table.

13. Add a section “List of references and Internet resources” and include in it a list of information sources that you used when preparing your abstract.

14. Apply style formatting to each of the section headings by selecting the “Heading 1” style for them. Automatically generate a new “Table of Contents” section.

15. Save the file with the changes in your personal folder, print it and submit it to your teacher for review.

Completion of items 1–5 of the job description corresponds to the rating “satisfactory”; items 1–10 – “good”; items 1–14 – “excellent”.

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Personal computers. Differences between PCs and general and special purpose computers

Differences between PCs and general and special purpose computers. The structure of a modern desktop PC, which basically replicates the structure of a mainframe computer, differs from the latter in a wide variety of configurations of nodes and peripheral equipment. This diversity reflects the implementation of the principle of open architecture. Not only the company, but also the user himself can create any PC configuration necessary for his purposes within the capabilities of the PC motherboard.

PCs are also distinguished by the choice of central processor, the number and types of ports, which are the mating parts of the connectors with which peripherals - devices are connected to the PC external memory and various technical means information input and output (monitor, mouse, keyboard, etc.), the presence of audiovisual configuration components - sound and video cards, the presence of wireless ultrasonic or infrared communication devices, etc.

Careful examination modern market PCs and peripherals (exhibitions, tradeshows, etc.) shows that all PCs are equipped with advanced devices. RAM reaches hundreds and thousands of megabytes, external memory - tens and hundreds of gigabytes. PC equipped powerful processors(performance - from one to three or more gigahertz), motherboards with a large number ports (more than ten), powerful video and sound cards, network cards, modems and fax modems, etc. Motherboards often integrate video, sound and network card functions, which by reducing the connector connections of PC nodes increases the reliability of its operation.

Compared to the PCs of the end of the last century, the PCs of the first years of the new millennium in terms of power, degree of miniaturization, and ergonomic perfection (size, weight, design) reached the indicators predicted for fifth-generation computers. Portable PCs (laptops) began to be positioned as substitutes for desktop PCs. The industry produces full-scale graphics stations in laptop format, as well as desktop PCs, in which all components, including the monitor, are integrated in one unit that takes up the same space as a laptop.

A specific modern graphics station in laptop format can have very high parameters and a wide range of peripherals: an internal modem, a wireless port for access to a local network (and through it to the Internet), a built-in video camera, a microphone and two speakers. The set of ports allows you to: connect a second monitor or, instead, a TV, as well as an external microphone and audio speakers, a printing device, a scanner, external photo and video cameras, game controllers, a second keyboard and a number of other devices, most of which equip a graphics station simultaneously, and not in replacement mode. When this PC is saturated with software applications, it can be interpreted not only as a graphic, but also a multimedia, music station - a workstation for a composer, designer, planner, etc.

Currently, users are armed with large-capacity flash memory (up to 1-2 GB) that does not require power supply. Initially, this silicon chip memory was used to record music in miniature MP3 players. Today, not only sound is recorded on flash memory (Memory Strick from Sony-up 80 minutes of music), but also images and texts. It is also included in printers, digital video cameras, cameras and many other products with automatic elements.

Factors that determined the mass popularity of PCs. The special role of PCs in the formation and functioning of modern screen culture is determined by their accessibility to the general public, mass distribution, device perfection and variety of models and software. Of course, the main reason for the mass popularity of PCs is the market mechanisms of the capitalist economy. However, certain features of PC design and software architecture greatly contribute to their distribution and improvement.

We will limit ourselves to two design principles first introduced by IBM when creating their PCs (1981), which ensured the mass production and distribution of PCs.

The principle of open architecture, when IBM “simply transferred” the modularity of the computer design to the PC, became a powerful driver of their development and distribution. PC components began to be developed by many companies, and not just one, as is usually the case for computers with a closed (monolithic) architecture. It has become possible to completely assemble a PC by any company and even individual user. PCs from other companies have become two or three times cheaper than IBM's. PC models in the IBM architecture are today produced by many companies. These models are fully compatible with IBM PCs. There is a term: “IBM-compatible PCs”.

The second principle used in the logic of building software applications was the principle of “top-down compatibility” of PC nodes and the PC itself as a whole. This principle means that every next version(model) of a PC or its individual component only adds new technical capabilities PC. The new ability to “run” old programs on new versions of a PC (but not vice versa) was also a powerful driver of its spread.

PC peripheral equipment. This includes technical means of input and output of information, external memory devices and technical means of teleprocessing of data. Computer peripherals are developing extremely quickly. It exists in a huge variety of models and types, defining how functionality PC, and ways for the user to communicate with the PC directly and at a distance.

Information input devices into a PC include a keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, game controllers, recorders, digital photo and video cameras, video and audio recorders with an analogue to digital signal converter, etc., connected to the PC by cables, which are increasingly being replaced by called wireless connections on a different physical basis.

The main device for entering information into a PC is the keyboard. The ergonomics of keyboards, produced in several modifications, are important. Extremely “soft” keyboards with plastic pins have been replaced by keyboards with a click that clearly registers the keystroke.

There are touch keyboards free of mechanical elements, commonly used in industry due to exceptional durability and because of the impossibility of getting “between the keys” (instead, touch foil pads are used) foreign objects(paper clips, cigarette ash, etc.).

Keyboards contain different number keys The XT keyboard has 83 keys (sometimes 85). A “system poll” key has been added to the AT keyboard. The MFII (Multifunction) keyboard has 102 keys. Special keyboards contain additional devices for reading bar codes, with a device for outputting Braille characters for blind users, etc.

Another important means of entering information into a computer is the mouse. Cursor coordinates are received from the mouse via a cable or wirelessly from a miniature radio transmitter, or via a light beam optical mouse. Using the left mouse button, you select (click) an object - an icon or another - and “drag” it (without releasing the button) across the screen. Double click activates an object - launches a command or program symbolized by an icon.

A joystick is a game controller that serves primarily for control. computer game. Usually there are two ports for joysticks if the PC is oriented as a gaming one.

For drawing on the screen there is graphics tablet and graphic pen (pencil). An active coordinate grid is “hardwired” into the tablet, so that a graphic pen, similar to a mouse, displays a signal - a drawing point or other tool - on the screen. To operate the tablet, a special program must be loaded into the PC.

A digital video camera, otherwise called a Web camera, is often built into laptops and used for network video conferencing. The image quality from the web camera still leaves much to be desired.

The image in a digital camera is perceived by a matrix of photo sensors, which transmits signals to the camera's memory. These images can then be displayed on a PC screen, or printed offline on an inkjet photo printer.

Scanners are used to enter texts, photos and graphic images, barcodes, etc. into the PC. Another type of input is carried out from an intermediate medium with large flash memory - a portable hard drive, magnetic or optical CDs; in this case, the input device is the disk drive.

Devices for outputting information from a digital computer include means for outputting alphanumeric data, means for outputting graphics, and integrated ones. From the very beginning of development computer technology- punching and printing devices, plotters (plotters) of many types, monitors (displays), which are also a means of managing data input (a means of communication), are receiving powerful development. Dot matrix printers of the 1970s and 1980s In most cases, digital computers were replaced by inkjet computers, as well as laser ones, based on the principles of electrography, similar to a copier such as a copier.

Monitors based on a cathode ray tube have begun to be intensively replaced by “thin” display models: LCD based on liquid crystal elements, PDP based on plasma elements, which significantly reduces the size and increases the ergonomics of desktop PCs. LCD displays are equipped with portable (laptop), pocket computers and virtual helmet. (PDP displays are not used in them due to high power consumption.)

Multimedia technology. Multimedia (multimedia) technology combines text, graphics, music, speech, and moving images into a PC. The retail network and companies that produce and assemble PCs, for their purposes, divide them into office, home and multimedia (centers). In light of the rapid growth of PC parameters and their capabilities, including the integration of all types of information environments (media), any such division loses its meaning, since all multimedia functions become available even to an inexpensive PC.

Basic terms, definitions and concepts of computers.

Computer (computer)- a device capable of performing a clearly defined sequence of operations prescribed by the program.

Personal computer (PC) usually focused on interactive interaction with 1 user, and the interaction occurs through a variety of communication media - from alphanumeric and graphic dialogue using a display, keyboard and mouse to virtual reality devices.

When the abbreviation PC (Personal Computer) is used, it means a PC compatible with the most popular family of IBM PCs and their clones. A PC can also be used collectively: the capabilities of many computers in this family allow them to be used as servers in local networks. Collocation PC server suggests increased power(calculation speed, amount of RAM and external memory) and a special design (spacious case) of the computer.

File server is the core of the local network. This computer (usually a high-performance minicomputer) runs the OS and controls the flow of data across the network. Individual workstations and any shared peripherals, such as printers, are all connected to the file server.

Workstation– is a regular PC running its own OS. However, unlike a standalone PC, the workstation contains a card network interface and is physically connected by cables to the file server. In addition, slave the station runs a special program (network shell), which allows it to exchange information with the file server, other workstations and other network devices. The shell allows workstation using files and programs stored on the file server is as easy as those on her own disks.

Supercomputer– Computers that have the highest performance and are mainly intended for solving complex scientific and technical problems.

computer general purpose – Computers designed to solve a wide class of problems with approximately the same technical and economic efficiency.

Minicomputer– Computers developed based on the requirement to minimize cost and designed to solve fairly simple problems.

Microcomputer– Computers, the central part of which is built on one or more microprocessors and developed based on the requirement of minimizing physical volume.

Specialized computer– A computer that has functionality and design features that allow it to be used for effective solution a limited class of tasks under certain environmental conditions.

OS– set of systems programs designed to ensure a certain level of efficiency of the information processing system due to automated control its operation and the specific set of services provided to the user.

CPU– a functional part of a computer or information processing system designed to interpret programs.

Central processing unit (CPU)– the processor that performs in this computation. machine or information processing system, the main functions of processing information and controlling the operation of other parts of the computer. machines or systems.

Architecture– this is the most general principles construction of computers that implement software control of the operation and interaction of its main functional units.

Main characteristics of the computer.

1) cost/performance ratio 2) reliability 3) fault tolerance 3) speed 5) memory size 6) calculation accuracy 7) command system 8) scalability; 9) software compatibility 10) software mobility.

Computer performance determined by the number of operations performed by processors per unit of time, as well as the amount of memory available in the machine and used for storing and processing information.

Computer cost depends on a large number of factors: speed, memory capacity, command system, etc. The main influence on the cost is exerted by the specific configuration of the computer and, most importantly, the external devices included in the final composition of the machine. Also, software has a significant impact on the cost of a computer.

Computer reliability– the ability of a computer to maintain its properties under given operating conditions for a certain period of time.

Fault tolerance– property computing system, which provides it, as a logical machine, with the ability to continue the actions specified by the program after a malfunction occurs. Introducing fault tolerance requires redundant hardware and software. Areas related to failure prevention and fault tolerance are the main ones in the problem of reliability.

Computer performance viewed from both sides. On the one hand, it is characterized by the number of elementary operations (any simple operation such as addition, transfer, shift, etc.) performed by the processor per second. On the other hand, the speed of a computer depends significantly on how its memory is organized. The time required to search for the necessary information in memory significantly affects the speed of the computer.

Capacity, or memory capacity is determined by the maximum amount of information that can be placed in the computer’s memory. Computer memory is divided into internal and external. Internal, or random access memory, varies in size for different types of machines and is determined by the computer's addressing system. The capacity of external memory due to the block structure and removable drive designs is almost limitless.

Calculation accuracy depends on the number of digits used to represent one number. Modern computers are equipped with 32- or 64-bit microprocessors, which is sufficient to ensure very high accuracy of calculations in a wide variety of applications. However, if this is not enough, you can use a double or triple grid of discharges.

Command system- this is a list of commands that a computer processor is capable of executing. The command system determines exactly what operations the processor can perform, how many operands must be specified in the command, and what type (format) the command has to recognize it.

Scalability– the ability to increase the number and power of processors, the amount of RAM and external memory and other computer system resources. Scalability must be ensured by the architecture and design of the computer, as well as appropriate software tools.

Software Compatibility Concept– the ability to execute the same programs on different computers obtaining the same results.

Software mobility– the ability to run the same software systems on various hardware platforms.

Open System Environment Model - IEEE POSIX Committee.

Municipal budgetary and educational institution

"Secondary school No. 30"

Completed:

8th grade student

Dmitrieva Daria

Teacher:

Demchenko E.E.

Kursk, 2014

“History of the development of computer technology”

Abstract

Introduction

As human society developed, it mastered not only matter and energy, but also information. With the advent and widespread distribution of computers, people received a powerful tool for effective use. information resources, to enhance your intellectual activity. From now on (midXXcentury) the transition from an industrial society to an information society began, in which information becomes the main resource.

The ability of members of society to use complete, timely and reliable information largely depends on the degree of development and mastery of new information technologies, the basis of which are computers. Let's consider the main milestones in the history of their development.

Computer Science is an essential component of the computing and data processing process. The first devices for computing were probably the well-knowncounting sticks, which are still used today in the primary grades of many schools to teach counting. As these devices developed, they became more complex, such asPhoenicianclay figurines, also intended to visually represent the number of items being counted. Such devices seem to have been used by traders and accountants of the time.

Gradually, from the simplest devices for counting, more and more complex devices were born: ( ), , , . Despite the simplicity of early computing devices, an experienced accountant can get results with simple abacus even faster than the sluggish owner of a modern calculator. Naturally, the performance and calculation speed of modern computing devices have long surpassed the capabilities of the most outstanding human calculator.

Humanity learned to use the simplest counting devices thousands of years ago. The most popular was the need to determine the number of items used in barter trade. One of the simplest solutions was to use the weight equivalent of the item being changed, which did not require an exact recalculation of the number of its components. For these purposes, the simplest balancing devices were usedscales, which became one of the first devices for quantitative determinationmasses. The principle of equivalence was widely used in another simple calculating device - the abacus, or abacus. The number of items counted corresponded to the number of dominoes of this instrument moved. A relatively complex device for counting could be a rosary, used in the practice of many religions. The believer, as if on an abacus, counted the number of prayers said on the grains of the rosary, and when passing a full circle of the rosary, he moved special counter grains on a separate tail, indicating the number of counted circles.With the invention of gear wheels, much more complex devices for performing calculations appeared.

About everyone generations of computers, I want to talk about the history of the development of computer technology in my essay.

The beginning of the computer era

First computerENIACwas created at the end of 1945 in the USA.

The basic ideas on which computer technology developed over many years were formulated in 1946 by the American mathematician John von Neumann. They were called von Neumann architecture.

In 1949, the first computer with von Neumann architecture was built - the English machineEDSAC. A year later, the American computer appearedEDVAC.

In our country, the first computer was created in 1951. It was called MESM - small electronic calculating machine. The designer of the MESM was Sergei Alekseevich Lebedev.

Serial production of computers began in the 50sXXcentury.

Electronic computer technology is usually divided into generations associated with a change in the element base. Besides,cars of different generations differlogical architecture and softwareprovision, quicklyaction, RAM, input method and youwater information, etc.

The first computer - a universal machine using vacuum tubes - was built in the USA in 1945.

This machine was called ENIAC (stands for: electronic digital integrator and computer). The designers of ENIAC were J. Mauchly and J. Eckert. The counting speed of this machine exceeded the speed of relay machines of that time by a thousand times.

First electroniccomputer ENIAC was programmed using the plug-switching method, i.e. the program was built by connecting individual blocks of the machine with conductors on a patch board. This complex and tedious procedure for preparing the machine for work made it inconvenient to use.

The basic ideas on which computer technology developed for many years were developed by the greatest American mathematician John von Neumann.

In 1946, the journal Nature published an article by J. von Neumann, G. Goldstein and A. Burks, “A Preliminary Consideration of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Device.” This article outlined the principles of the design and operation of a computer. The main one is the principle of stored in memoryprograms , according to which data and program are placed in shared memory cars.

The fundamental description of the structure and operation of a computer is usually called computer architecture. The ideas presented in the above-mentioned article were called “J. von Neumann’s computer architecture.”

In 1949, the first computer with Neumann architecture was built - the English EDSAC machine. A year later, the American computer EDVAC appeared. The named machines existed in single copies. Serial production of computers began in developed countries in the 50s of the 20th century.

In our country, the first computer was created in 1951. It was called MESM - small electronic calculating machine. The designer of the MESM was Sergei Alekseevich Lebedev

The great role of Academician S. A. Lebedev in the creation of domestic computers. Under his leadership, in the 50s, serial tube computers BESM-1 (high-speed electronic calculating machine), BESM-2, M-20 were built. At that time, these cars were among the best in the world.

In the 60s of the 20th century, S. A. Lebedev led the development of semiconductor computers BESM-ZM, BESM-4, M-220, M-222. The BESM-6 machine was an outstanding achievement of that period. This is the first domestic and one of the first computers in the world with a speed of 1 million operations per second.

Subsequent ideas and developments of S. A. Lebedev contributed to the creation of more advanced machines of the next generations.

First generation of computers

First generation of computers - tube machines from the 50s.The counting speed of the fastest machines of the first generation reached 20 thousand operations per second. Punched tapes and punched cards were used to enter programs and data. Since the internal memory of these machines was small (it could hold several thousand numbers and program commands), they were mainly used for engineering and scientific calculations not related to the processing of large volumes of data. These were rather bulky structures, containing thousands of lamps, sometimes occupying hundreds of square meters, consuming hundreds of kilowatts of electricity. Programs for such machines were compiled in machine command languages, so programming in those days was accessible to few. It is generally accepted that the first generation of computers appeared during the Second World War after1943 Conrad Zuse, shown to friends and relatives in1938 relay) is a machine that is capricious in handling and unreliable in calculations. In May1941 year inBerlin

It is generally accepted that the first generation of computers appeared during the Second World War after1943 year, although the first working representative should be considered the V-1 (Z1)Konrad Zusedemonstrated to friends and relatives in1938 year. It was the first electronic (built on homemade analogsrelay) a machine that is capricious to use and unreliable in calculations. In May1941 year inBerlin, Zuse presented the Z3 car, which caused delight among specialists. Despite a number of shortcomings, it was the first computer that, under different circumstances, could have been a commercial success.

However, the first computers are considered to be EnglishColossus(1943) and AmericanENIAC(1945). ENIAC was the first vacuum tube computer.

The first generation computers used vacuum tubes and relays as their elemental base; RAM was performed on flip-flops, later on ferrite cores.The elemental base of the first computers - vacuum tubes - determined their large dimensions, significant energy consumption, low reliability and, as a consequence, small production volumes and a narrow circle of users, mainly from the world of science. In such machines there were practically no means of combining the operations of the program being executed and parallelizing the operation of various devices; commands were executed one after another, the ALU was idle while exchanging data with external devices, the set of which was very limited. Volume RAM BESM-2, for example, consisted of 2048 39-bit words; magnetic drums and magnetic tape drives were used as external memory. The process of communication between a person and a first-generation machine was very labor-intensive and ineffective. As a rule, the developer himself, who wrote the program in machine code, entered it into the computer memory using punched cards and then manually controlled its execution. Electronic monster on certain time was given to the undivided use of the programmer, and the effectiveness of solving a computing problem largely depended on the level of his skill, ability to quickly find and correct errors and ability to navigate the computer console. Focus on manual control determined the absence of any program buffering capabilities.

The first generation computers were characterized by low reliability, required a cooling system and had significant dimensions. The programming process required considerable skill, good knowledge of computer architecture and its software capabilities. At first, programming in computer codes (machine code) was used, then autocodes and assemblers appeared, which to a certain extent automate the process of programming tasks. First generation computers were used for scientific and technical calculations. The programming process was more like an art, which was practiced by a very narrow circle of mathematicians, electronics and physicists.

All computers of the 1st generationfunctionedbased on vacuum tubes, which made them unreliable - the tubes had to be changed frequently. These computers were huge, clunky, and overly expensive machines that could only be purchased by large corporations and governments. The lamps consumed huge amounts of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

Moreover, each machine used its own programming language. The set of instructions was small, the circuit of the arithmetic-logical device and the control device was quite simple, and there was practically no software. Indicators of RAM capacity and performance were low. Punched tapes, punched cards, magnetic tapes and printing devices were used for input/output; random access memory devices were implemented based on mercury delay lines of cathode ray tubes.

These inconveniences began to be overcome through the intensive development of automation programming tools, the creation of service program systems that simplify work on the machine and increase the efficiency of its use. This, in turn, required significant changes in the structure of computers, aimed at bringing it closer to the requirements that arose from experience in operating computers.

Second generation of computers

In 1949, the first semiconductor device was created in the USA, replacing the vacuum tube. It was called a transistor.In the 60s transistors have become the elemental base for Second generation computer. The transition to semiconductor elements has improved the quality of computers in all respects: they have become more compact, more reliable, and less energy-intensive. The speed of most machines has reached tens and hundreds of thousands of operations per second. The volume of internal memory has increased hundreds of times compared to the first generation computer. External (magnetic) memory devices have received great development: magnetic drums, magnetic tape drives. Thanks to this, it became possible to create information, reference, and search systems on a computer (this is due to the need to store large amounts of information on magnetic media for a long time).During the second generation, programming languages ​​began to actively develop high level. The first of them were FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL. Programming as an element of literacy has become widespread, mainly among people with higher education.

The second generation of computers is the transition to a transistor element base, the emergence of the first mini-computers.

Second-generation computers typically consisted of a large number of circuit boards, each containing one to fourlogic gatesortriggers. In particular,IBM Standard Modular Systemdetermined the standard for such boards and connectors for them. IN1959based on transistors, IBM released a mainframeIBM 7090and a middle class carIBM 1401. The last one usedpunched cardinput and became the most popular general-purpose computer of the time: in the period 1960-1964. More than 100 thousand copies of this car were produced. It used a 4,000-character memory (later increased to 16,000 characters). Many aspects of this project were based on the desire to replace punch card machines, which had been widely used since1920suntil the very beginning of the 1970s. IN1960IBM released a transistorIBM 1620, originally punched tape only, but soon upgraded to punched cards. The model became popular as a scientific computer, with about 2,000 copies produced. The machine used magnetic core memory with a capacity of up to 60,000 decimal digits.

Also in 1960DECreleased its first model -PDP-1, intended for use by technical personnel in laboratories and for research.

IN1961Burroughs CorporationreleasedB5000, the first dual-processor computer withvirtual memory. Other unique features werestack architecture,Descriptor-based addressing, and no programming directly toassembly language.

Second generation computerThe IBM 1401, produced in the early 1960s, captured about a third of the global computer market, with more than 10,000 machines sold.

The use of semiconductors has improved not onlycentral processor, but also peripheral devices. The second generation of data storage devices made it possible to save tens of millions of characters and numbers. There was a division into rigidly fixed (fixed ) storage devices connected to the processor by a high-speed data link, and removable (removable ) devices. Replacing a disk cassette in a removable device took only a few seconds. Although the capacity of removable media was usually lower, their replaceability made it possible to save an almost unlimited amount of data.Magnetic tapetypically used for data archiving because it provides more capacity at a lower cost.

In many second-generation machines, the functions of communicating with peripheral devices were delegated to specializedcoprocessors. For example, whileperipheral processorperforms reading or punching of punched cards, the main processor performs calculations or branching according to the program. One data bus carries data between memory and the processor during the instruction fetch and execution cycle, and typically other data buses serve peripheral devices. OnPDP-1The memory access cycle took 5 microseconds; Most instructions required 10 microseconds: 5 to fetch the instruction and another 5 to fetch the operand.

"Setun"was the first computer basedternary logic, developed in1958VSoviet Union. The first Soviet serial semiconductor computers were"Spring" and "Snow", released with1964 By1972 The peak performance of the Snow computer was 300,000 operations per second. The machines were made on the basis of transistors with clock frequency 5 MHz. A total of 39 computers were produced.

The best domestic computer of the 2nd generation is consideredBESM-6, created in1966

Receives further development the principle of autonomy - it is already implemented at the level individual devices, which is expressed in their modular structure. I/O devices are equipped with their own control units (called controllers), which made it possible to free the central control unit from managing I/O operations.

Improvement and reduction in the cost of computers led to a decrease in the specific cost of computer time and computing resources in the total cost of an automated solution to a data processing problem, while at the same time the costs of program development (i.e. programming) almost did not decrease, and in some cases tended to increase . Thus, there was a tendency towards efficient programming, which began to be implemented in the second generation of computers and is being developed to the present day.

The development begins on the basis of libraries of standard programs for integrated systems that have the property of portability, i.e. functioning on a computer different brands. The most frequently used software tools are allocated in the software for solving problems of a certain class.

The technology for executing programs on a computer is being improved: special software tools are being created - system software.

The purpose of creating system software is to speed up and simplify the processor's transition from one task to another. The first systems appeared batch processing, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor. Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs designed to manage the computing process. During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A set of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package. This element is still alive: the so-called MS DOS batch (or command) files are nothing more than packages of tasks (the extension in their name bat is an abbreviation for the English word batch, which means package).

Second-generation domestic computers include Promin, Minsk, Hrazdan, and Mir.

Third generation of computers

Third generation of computerscreated on a new element base - integrated circuits Oh: on a small wafer of semiconductor material, less than 1 cm in area 2 complex electronic circuits were installed. They were called integrated circuits (ICs). The first ICs contained dozens, then hundreds of elements (transistors, resistances, etc.). When the degree of integration (number of elements) approached a thousand, they began to be called large integrated circuits - LSI; then ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI) appeared. Third generation computers began to be produced in the second half of the 60s, when the American companyIBMstarted production of machine systemsIBM-360. In the Soviet Union in the 70s, the production of machines of the ES series of computers began ( Unified System COMPUTER). The transition to the third generation is associated with significant changes in computer architecture. It became possible to run several programs simultaneously on one machine. This mode of operation is called multiprogram (multi-program) mode. The operating speed is the most powerful models The computer reached several million operations per second. On third-generation machines, a new type of external storage device appeared - magnetic disks. New types of input/output devices are widely used: displays, plotters. During this period, the areas of application of computers expanded significantly. Databases, the first artificial intelligence systems, computer-aided design (CAD) and control systems (ACS) began to be created. In the 70s, the line of small (mini) computers received powerful development.

The elemental base of a computer is small integrated circuits (MICs), containing hundreds or thousands of transistors on one plate. The operation of these machines was controlled from alphanumeric terminals. High-level languages ​​and Assembly were used for control. Data and programs were entered both from the terminal and from punched cards and punched tapes. The machines were intended for wide use in various fields of science and technology (calculations, production management, moving objects, etc.). Thanks to integrated circuits, it was possible to significantly improve the technical and operational characteristics of computers and sharply reduce hardware prices. For example, third-generation machines, compared to second-generation machines, have a larger amount of RAM, increased performance, increased reliability, and reduced power consumption, footprint and weight.

Integrated circuit, chip - "microelectronic product having high density packaging of electrically connected elements and considered as a single structural whole." (Gorokhov P.K. Explanatory dictionary of radio electronics. Basic terms. M.: Russian language, 1993). Before the invention of the integrated circuit (in 1958), each component electronic circuit was manufactured separately, and then the components were connected by soldering. The advent of integrated circuits changed the entire technology. At the same time, electronic equipment has become cheaper. The microcircuit is a multi-layered intricacy of hundreds of circuits, so tiny that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. These circuits also contain passive components - resistors that create resistance electric current, and capacitors capable of storing charge. However, the most important components integrated circuits are transistors - devices that can both amplify voltage and turn it on and off, “speaking” in a binary language. The third generation is associated with the advent of computers with an elemental base on integrated circuits (IC). In January 1959, D. Kilby created the first integrated circuit, which was a thin germanium plate 1 cm long. To demonstrate the capabilities of integrated technology, Texas Instruments created an on-board computer for the US Air Force, containing 587 integrated circuits and a volume 150 times smaller, than a similar old-style computer. But Kilby's integrated circuit had a number of significant shortcomings, which were eliminated with the advent of R. Noyce's planar integrated circuits in the same year. From that moment on, IC technology began its triumphal march, capturing more and more new sections of modern electronics and, first of all, computer technology.
The first special on-board computers using IP technology are designed and built according to orders from the US military department. New technology ensured greater reliability, manufacturability and speed of computer technology while significantly reducing its dimensions. It turned out to be possible to place thousands of logic elements on one square millimeter of an integrated circuit. However, not only IP technology determined the emergence of a new generation of computers - third-generation computers, as a rule, form a series of models that are software compatible from bottom to top and have capabilities that increase from model to model. At the same time, this technology made it possible to implement much more complex logical architectures of computers and their peripheral equipment, which significantly expanded the functional and computing capabilities of the computer.

The most important criterion for the difference between second and third generation computers is the significant development of computer architecture that meets the requirements of both the problems being solved and the programmers working on them. With the development of experimental computers Stretch from IBM and Atlas from the University of Manchester, a similar concept of computer architecture became a reality; It was implemented on a commercial basis by IBM with the creation of the well-known IBM/360 series. Operating systems are becoming part of computers, multiprogramming capabilities have appeared; many tasks of managing memory, input/output devices and other resources began to be taken over by operating systems or directly by the computer hardware.

The first such series, with which the third generation is usually counted, is the well-known series of models IBM Series/360 (or IBM/360 for short), serial production of which began in the USA in 1964; and by 1970 the series included 11 models. This series had a great influence on the further development of general purpose computers in all countries as a reference and standard for many design solutions in the field of computer technology. Among other third-generation computers, we can note such models as PDP-8, PDP-11, B3500 and a number of others. In the USSR and other CMEA countries, since 1972, production of the Unified Series of Computers (ES COMPUTER) began, copying (as far as technologically possible) the IBM/360 series. Along with the ES series of computers, in the CMEA countries and the USSR, in 1970, production of a series of small computers (SM computers), compatible with the well-known PDP series, began.

If the IBM/360 series models did not fully use IC technology (methods of miniaturization of discrete transistor elements were also used), then the new IBM/370 series was implemented using 100% IC technology, retained continuity with the 360 ​​series, but its the models had significantly better technical characteristics, a more developed command system and a number of important architectural innovations.

The software that ensures the functioning of the computer in various operating modes is becoming significantly more powerful. Developed database management systems (DBMS), design automation systems (CAD) for various purposes are appearing, automated control systems, process control systems, etc. are being improved. Much attention is paid to the creation of packages application programs(PPP) for various purposes. New languages ​​and programming systems continue to appear and existing ones are developed, the number of which has already reached about 3000. The most widespread use of third-generation computers has been found as the technical basis for the creation of large and ultra-large information systems. Important role The creation of software (DBMS) that ensures the creation and maintenance of databases and data banks for various purposes played a role in solving this problem. Variety of computing and software, as well as peripheral equipment, has put on the agenda the issues of effective selection of software and computing systems for certain applications.

Special mention should be made about the development of third-generation VT in the USSR. To develop a unified technical policy in the field of computer technology, in 1969, on the initiative of the Union, an Intergovernmental Commission was created with a Coordination Center, and then the Council of Chief Designers. It was decided to create an analogue of the IBM/360 series as the basis of computer technology in the CMEA countries. For this purpose, the efforts of large research and design teams were concentrated, more than 20 thousand scientists and highly qualified specialists were attracted, a large scientific research center for computer technology (NICEVT) was created, which made it possible to establish mass production of the first models in the early 70s ES COMPUTER. It should be noted right away that the ES computer models (especially the first ones) were far from the best copies of the corresponding originals of the IBM/360 series.

The end of the 60s in the USSR was characterized by a wide variety of incompatible computer technology, seriously inferior in key indicators to the best foreign models, which required the development of a more reasonable technical policy in this strategic area. important issue. Taking into account the very serious lag in this matter from computer-developed countries (and, first of all, from the eternal competitor - the United States), the above decision was made, which looked very tempting - to use the developed and tested for 5 years and already well-proven IBM series with the aim of quickly and cheaply introducing it into the national economy, opening up wide access to very rich software created by that time abroad. But all this was only a tactical gain, and the strategy for the development of domestic computer technology was dealt a powerful knockout blow.

Fourth generation of computers

Another revolutionary event in electronics occurred in 1971, when an American companyIntelannounced the creation of a microprocessor.Microprocessoris an ultra-large integrated circuit capable of performing the functions of the main unit of a computer - the processor. Initially, microprocessors began to be built into various technical devices: machines, cars, airplanes. By connecting a microprocessor with input-output devices and external memory, we got a new type of computer: a microcomputer. Microcomputers are classified as machinesfourth generation . A significant difference between microcomputers and their predecessors is their small size (the size of a household TV) and comparative low cost. This is the first type of computer that appeared in retail sales. The most popular type of computer today ispersonal computers (PCs).The first PC was born in 1976 in the USA. Since 1980, an American company has become a trendsetter in the PC market.IBM. Its designers managed to create an architecture that has become, in fact, an international standard for professional PCs. The cars of this series were calledIBMPC ( PersonalComputer). The emergence and spread of the PC in terms of its significance for social development comparable to the advent of printing. It was PCs that made computer literacy a mass phenomenon. With the development of this type of machine, the concept of “information technology” appeared, without which it has become impossible to do without in most areas of human activity.Another line in the development of fourth generation computers is -supercomputer. Machines of this class have speeds of hundreds of millions and billions of operations per second. A supercomputer is a multiprocessor computing complex.

The elemental base of a computer is large integrated circuits (LSI). Most prominent representatives fourth generation computers – personal computers (PCs). Communication with the user was carried out via color graphic display using high level languages.

The fourth generation is the current generation of computer equipment developed after 1970.

For the first time, large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) were used, which roughly corresponded in power to 1000 ICs. This has led to a reduction in the cost of producing computers.

IN1980, it was possible to place the central processor of a small computer on a chip with an area of ​​\u200b\u200b1/4 inch (0.635 cm 2 .). LSIs were already used in computers such as Illiak, Elbrus, and Macintosh. The speed of such machines is thousands of millions of operations per second. The RAM capacity has increased to 500 million bits. In such machines, several instructions are simultaneously executed on several sets of operands.

From a structural point of view, machines of this generation are multiprocessor and multi-machine complexes operating on a common memory and a common field external devices. RAM capacity is about 1 - 64 MB.

The spread of personal computers by the end of the 70s led to a slight decrease in demand for large computers and minicomputers. This became a matter of serious concern for IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), a leading company in the production of large computers, and1979 IBM decided to try its hand at the personal computer market, creating the first personal computers -IBMPC.

The machines were intended to dramatically increase labor productivity in science, production, management, healthcare, service and everyday life. A high degree of integration contributed to an increase in the layout density of electronic equipment and an increase in its reliability, which led to an increase in the speed of the computer and a decrease in its cost. All this has a significant impact on the logical structure (architecture) of the computer and its software. The connection between the structure of the machine and its software becomes closer, especially the operating system (OS) (or monitor) - a set of programs that organize continuous work machines without human intervention.

Comparative characteristics of computer generations

Characteristics

Computer generations

III

Years of use

1948 - 1958

1959 - 1967

1968 - 1973

1974 - present time.

Element base

Electronic tubes – diodes and triodes.

Semiconductor devices.

Small integrated circuits (MICs) containing hundreds or thousands of transistors on a single wafer.

Large-scale integrated circuits (LSI).

Dimensions

The computers were housed in several large metal cabinets that occupied entire rooms.

The computer is made in the form of identical racks. Also, computers were housed in several large metal cabinets, but inIIgeneration, their size and weight have decreased.

The computer is made in the form of identical racks.

A high degree of integration contributed to an increase in the layout density of electronic equipment and an increase in its reliability, which led to an increase in the speed of the computer and a decrease in its cost. Compact computers -personal computers.

Number of computers in the world

Dozens.

Thousands.

Tens of thousands.

Millions.

Performance

10 - 20 thousand operations per second.

100 - 1000 thousand operations per second.

1 - 10 million operations per second.

10 - 100 million operations per second.

RAM capacity

1:2 kbytes.

2 - 32 kbytes.

64 kbytes.

2 - 5 MB.

Typical models

MESM, BESM-2.

BESM-6, Minsk-2.

IBM-360, IBM-370, ES COMPUTER, SM COMPUTER.

IBM-PC, Apple.

Storage medium

Punched card, punched tape.

Magnetic tape.

Disk.

Flexible and laser disks.

Conclusion

Developments in the field of computer technology continue. Fifth generation computer These are cars of the near future. Their main quality should be a high intellectual level. They will allow voice input, voice communication, machine “vision”, machine “touch”.

Fifth generation machines are realized artificial intelligence.

INIn accordance with the generally accepted methodology for assessing the development of computer technology, the first generation was considered , and the fourth - using . At thatWhile previous generations were improved by increasing the number of elements per unit area (miniaturization), fifth-generation computers were supposed to be the next step, and to achieve super-performance, interact with an unlimited set of microprocessors.

A PC is a desktop or laptop computer that uses a microprocessor as the sole central processing unit that performs all logical and arithmetic operations. These computers are classified as fourth and fifth generation computers. In addition to laptops, portable microcomputers also include pocket computers- palmtops. The main features of a PC are the bus organization of the system, high standardization of hardware and software, and focus on a wide range of consumers.

With the development of semiconductor technology, the personal computer, having received compact electronic components, increased his ability to calculate and remember. And improvements in software have made it easier for people with very little understanding of computers to work with computers. computer technology. Main components: memory card and additional random access memory (RAM); main panel with microprocessor (central processing unit) and space for RAM; PCB interface; drive board interface; a disk drive device (with a cord) that allows data to be read and written to magnetic disks; removable magnetic or floppy disks for storing information outside the computer; panel for entering text and data.

Intensive development of V generation computers is currently underway. The development of subsequent generations of computers is based on large integrated circuits with an increased degree of integration and the use of optoelectronic principles (lasers, holography). Completely different tasks are posed than during the development of all previous computers. If the developers of computers from generations I to IV were faced with such tasks as increasing productivity in the field of numerical calculations, achieving large capacity memory, then the main task of the developers of V generation computers is to create artificial intelligence of the machine (the ability to draw logical conclusions from the presented facts), to develop the “intellectualization” of computers - to eliminate the barrier between man and computer. Computers will be able to perceive information from handwritten or printed text, from forms, from the human voice, recognize the user by voice, and translate from one language to another. This will allow all users to communicate with the computer, even those who do not have special knowledge in this area. The computer will be an assistant to man in all areas. .